CALIFORNIA 
AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE 

CIRCULAR  15 

March,  1928 


PORK  PRODUCTION 
IN  CALIFORNIA 

E.  H.  HUGHES  AND  L.  W.  FELDMILLER 


PUBLISHED  BY 

THE  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


Cooperative  Extension  work  in  Agriculture  and  Home  Economics,  College  of  Agriculture, 
University  of  California,  and  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  cooperating.  Dis- 
tributed in  furtherance  of  the  Acts  of  Congress  of  May  8  and  June  30,  1914.  B.  H.  Crocheron, 
Director,  California  Agricultural  Extension  Service. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  PRINTING  OFFICE 

BERKELEY.  CALIFORNIA 

1928 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2011  with  funding  from 

University  of  California,  Davis  Libraries 


http://www.archive.org/details/porkproductionin15hugh 


PORK  PRODUCTION  IN  CALIFORNIA 

E.  H.  HUGHESi  and  L.  W.  FELDMILLER2 


5lA/IN^    D/3Tf?IBUTI0N 
in 
I  CALIFORNIA 


Fig.  1. — Outline  map,  showing  production  areas. 


INTRODUCTION 

The  demand  for  pork  products  in  California  exceeds  the  supply, 
and  because  of  the  rapidly  increasing  population  it  will  probably 
continue  to  do  so.  For  this  reason  live  hogs  bring  one  or  two  cents 
more  a  pound  on  the  San  Francisco,  Oakland,  and  Los  Angeles 
markets  than  on  the  mid-western  markets. 

In  the  Great  Valley  and  the  adjacent  foothills,  large  crops  of 
barley,  grain  sorghums,  and  alfalfa  are  raised  annually.  That  these 
feeds  will  produce  pork  of  excellent  quality  has  long  been  know^n. 

1  Associate  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry  and  Associate  Animal  Husband- 
man in  the  Experiment  Station. 

2  Herdsman,  Branch  of  the  College  of  Agriculture,  Davis,  California. 


4  CALIFORNIA   AGRICULTURAL   EXTENSION    SERVICE  [CiRC.  15 

Barley  and  rice  stubble,  surplus  by-products  from  the  packing  plant 
and  the  dairy,  damaged  and  cull  fruits  and  vegetables,  and  kitchen 
waste  can  be  utilized  economically  by  the  pig  in  the  production  of 
fresh  and  cured  meats  for  the  home  and  for  the  commercial  trade. 

Climatic  conditions  are  excellent.  Since  green  feed  is  always 
available  during  the  winter  months,  it  is  possible  to  pasture  all  year. 
During  the  summer  months,  if  there  is  no  natural  shade,  artificial 
shade  should  be  provided.  A  shelter  sufficient  to  keep  the  pigs  dry 
is  advisable  during  the  winter  season. 

Two  litters  a  year  are  produced  by  most  growers.  The  fall  pigs 
often  develop  as  well  as  the  spring  litters. 


ggiwy'iiiiiiii 


^  p- 


Fig.  2.- — The  tinislied  prodiu-t,  bied  and  fed  on  a  California  farm'. 

Swine  raising  is  logically  an  integral  part  of  a  diversified  agricul- 
ture. A  few  pigs  on  most  farms  would  increase  the  net  returns.  With 
few  exceptions  there  is  enough  feed  wasted  on  every  farm  to  supply 
the  pork  consumed  on  that  farm.  Pork  production  may  be  carried 
on  profitably  with  a  small  amount  of  capital  invested  in  foundation 
stock,  labor,  and  equipment. 

LOCATION  OF  FARM  AND  EQUIPMENT 

The  ideal  location  of  a  hog  ranch  is  one  where  alfalfa  can  be 
produced  cheaply,  where  barley  or  other  grain  feeds  can  be  grown 
economically,  and  where  shade  and  water  are  plentiful.  Pork  pro- 
duction in  conjunction  with  the  dairy,  where  skim  milk,  buttermilk, 
or  whey  is  available  has  long  been  recognized  as  good  practice. 


1928] 


PORK    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA 


If  the  swine  barn  and  lots  can  be  located  where  natural  shade  is 
provided  and  where  drainage  is  good  or  where  the  soil  is  light  or 
sandy,  it  is  much  easier  to  keep  the  hogs  cool  during  the  summer 
and  clean  during  the  winter.  Nearness  to  market,  good  shipping 
facilities,  productive  soil,  adequate  water  supply,  and  natural  shade 
are  all  factors  which  make  for  success  in  profitable  pork  production. 

Central  or  Farrowing  House. — Two  types  of  central  or  farrowing 
houses  are  in  use,  one  consisting  of  two  rows  of  farrowing  pens  with 
an  alley  through  the  center  and  storage  space  at  one  end  (fig.  3),  and 
the  other  being  simply  a  series  of  farrowing  pens  covered  with  a 
shed  roof.     In  both  types  the  partitions  should  be  at  least  30  inches 


Fig.  3. — Central  farrowing  house  in  use  at  the  University  of  California, 
with  Sudan  grass  pasture  in  the  foreground. 


high  and  may  be  of  wood,  woven-wire,  or  gas-pipe  construction.  A 
door  in  each  pen  should  lead  to  an  outside  pen  where  the  sow  and  pigs 
may  have  access  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  and  where  exercise  will 
be  taken  naturally.  The  floor  should  be  of  concrete  or  board  because 
it  is  practically  impossible  to  keep  a  dirt  floor  clean  and  free  from 
infection.  The  farrowing  pen  should  be  at  least  6  feet  wide  and  8  feet 
long,  with  a  guard  rail  about  8  inches  above  the  floor  to  afford  pro- 
tection for  the  small  pigs. 

Movahle  Houses. — There  are  many  types  of  movable  houses.  The 
most  desirable  for  California  conditions,  however,  is  one  that  affords 
protection  against  rain  in  the  winter  and  provides  shade  during  the 
summer.  Satisfactory  dimensions  are  8  feet  wide  by  14  feet  long, 
with  sides  at  least  3  feet  high.  A  gable  roof  and  a  board  floor  are 
desirable  (fig.  4).  Built  on  4  by  6-inch  runners  or  skids,  such  a  house 
may  be  moved  from  one  lot  to  another. 


CALIFORNIA    AGRICULTURAL    EXTENSION    SERVICE 


[CiRC.  15 


Fencing. — Fences  are  an  important  part  of  the  equipment.  Wood, 
concrete,  or  steel  posts  are  satisfactory.  The  posts  should  be  not 
farther  than  8  or  10  feet  apart.  Several  types  of  fencing  are  in  use. 
For  small  lots,  a  fence  built  of  1  by  6-inch  unsurfaced  boards,  four 
boards  high,  with  about  a  3-inch  space  between  the  bottom  boards  is 
a  very  good  one.  Woven-wire  fencing,  however,  is  very  popular.  An 
excellent  woven-wire  fence  has  a  diamond  mesh,  32  inches  in  height, 
with  a  barbed  wire  at  the  bottom  and  at  the  top. 


Fig.  4. — Movable  house  that  affords  protection  in  winter  and  shade  during 
the  summer  months.  A  partition  may  be  placed  in  the  middle,  affording  farrow- 
ing quarters  for  two  sows. 

Hog  Wallows. — Concrete  hog  Avallows  8  or  10  feet  wide  and  14 
to  16  feet  long  are  desirable  equipment.  They  should  be  so  constructed 
as  to  be  easily  accessible  and  should  be  supplied  with  a  drain  to 
facilitate  cleaning.  Only  4  to  6  inches  of  water  need  be  kept  in  the 
wallow,  and  this  should  be  frequentl}^  removed  and  the  wallow 
thoroughly  cleaned.  A  film  of  crude  or  crank-case  oil  on  the  water  is 
a  valuable  preventive  of  lice  and  mange,  and  aids  in  keeping  the  hair 
of  the  pig  in  good  condition. 


TYPES   AND    BREEDS 


Both  lard  and  bacon  types  of  hogs  are  found  in  the  state.  Of  the 
former,  the  most  common  are  the  Berkshire,  Hampshire,  Chester 
White,  Duroc-Jersey,  and  Poland-China,  the  last  two  named  being 
more  numerous  than  the  other  breeds.     Of  the  bacon  type,  the  Tam- 


1928]  PORK   PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  7 

worth  is  most  common,  although  a  few  large  Yorkshires  are  found, 
principally  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state. 

During  recent  years  a  gradual  change  in  the  lard  type  of  hogs 
has  been  brought  about  by  changing  demands  of  the  consuming  public 
and  by  the  realization  of  the  producer  that  a  longer-legged  and  more 
upstanding  hog  is  grown  more  rapidly  and  is  a  better  rustler  than  the 
wide,  shorter-legged  animal  (figs.  5  and  6).  This  change  in  type  has, 
perhaps,  been  partially  responsible  for  an  increase  in  the  prolificacy 
of  the  average  sow.  Probably  the  added  length  and  depth  have  given 
the  brood  sow  more  capacity,  which,  in  turn,  has  resulted  in  an 
increase  in  milk  production. 

SELECTION  OF  THE   BREEDING    HERD 

In  selecting  animals  for  breeding  purposes,  it  is  good  practice  to 
purchase  from  a  reputable  individual  or  firm. 

There  are  three  ways  of  determining  the  value  of  an  animal  as  a 
breeder :  first,  by  individuality ;  second,  by  pedigree ;  and  third,  by 
progeny.  Most  hogs  selected  for  the  production  of  pork  are  chosen 
on  their  individuality  and  pedigree.  Animals  two  years  old  or  over 
are  seldom  purchased  for  this  purpose.  Wherever  possible,  purebred 
animals  should  be  used  in  founding  a  herd.  A  purebred  sire  should 
always  be  used.  If  it  is  not  possible  or  feasible  to  begin  with  purebred 
sows,  high-grade  animals  of  good  conformation  and  constitution  may 
logically  be  substituted. 

To  select  breeding  animals  requires  an  appreciation  of  the  essential 
functions  which  the  different  classes  of  hogs  have  to  perform.  A 
finished  barrow  is  one  which  has  been  a  good  feeder,  which  will  dress 
out  profitably  as  a  killer,  and  which  will  meet  the  demand  of  the 
consumer. 

Selecting  the  Brood  Sow. — Uniformity  of  type,  color  markings, 
and  similarity  in  bloodlines,  should  be  considered  when  choosing  the 
sow  herd.  It  is  advisable  that  each  one  be  a  prolific  and  regular 
breeder.  For  this  reason,  a  knowledge  of  the  prolificacy  of  the  sire 
and  dam  is  of  value.  It  is  often  advantageous  and  as  cheap  to  buy 
sows  already  bred  to  a  good  boar.  One  should  keep  in  mind  that  the 
sow  should  produce  pigs  that  will  make  good  feeders,  gain  rapidly, 
be  finished  at  a  marketable  weight,  and  be  of  a  type  that  will  produce 
maximum  returns  when  slaughtered. 

The  good  brood  sow  should  be  large,  show  femininity  and  refine- 
ment about  the  head,  have  large,  clear  eyes,  ears  medium  in  size,  be 


8  CALIFORNIA   AGRICULTURAL   EXTENSION    SERVICE  [CiRC.  15 

neat  in  the  jowl,  and  have  desirable  width  between  the  eyes  and  a 
strong  muzzle.  Her  back  and  loin  should  be  strong  and  slightly 
arched;  she  should  be  smooth  about  the  shoulders,  and  have  long, 
deep,  smooth  sides.  Her  hams  should  be  deep,  full,  and  not  flabby. 
The  udder  should  be  well  developed  with  from  ten  to  fourteen  teats. 
She  should  have  straight,  strong  legs,  not  too  close  together,  with  bone 
of  good  quality,  and  short  pasterns.  Her  chest  should  be  deep  and 
not  pinched,  showing  a  strong  constitution.  Fine  hair,  smoothness 
of  outline,  and  refinement  indicate  quality. 

The  ideal  brood  sow  will  show  indications  of  an  even  temperament. 
She  should  be  docile,  and  not  display  an  irritable  disposition.  The 
nervous,  excitable  sow  does  not  raise  as  large  a  percentage  of  pigs 
farrowed  as  the  one  with  an  even  temperament. 

When  the  pigs  are  weaned,  it  is  good  practice  to  check  up  the 
records  and  to  sort  out  for  fattening  those  sows  which,  for  some  reason 
or  another,  did  not  raise  large  litters  or  which  raised  pigs  of  poor 
type  and    quality. 

Selecting  the  Boar. — Inasmuch  as  a  large  part  of  the  improvement 
in  the  herd  comes  through  the  use  of  a  good  sire,  the  selection  of  the 
boar  is  extremely  important.  The  boar  should  be  purebred.  There 
is  no  excuse  for  the  use  of  a  grade  or  scrub  boar.  The  boar  should 
not  be  purchased  when  too  young.  The  selection  should  be  deferred 
until  he  is  about  six  months  of  age,  when  any  serious  defects  may  be 
detected.  It  is  practically  impossible  to  foresee  at  weaning  time  the 
pig's  development.  He  should  be  from  a  prolific  family  to  insure  in 
his  offspring  the  ability  to  produce  large  litters. 

The  temperament  of  the  boar  is  as  important  as  that  of  the  sow. 
A  cross,  irritable  boar  is  hard  to  handle  and  should  not  be  selected 
unless  he  has  some  extraordinary  qualities  needed  in  the  herd. 

The  boar  should  be  large  and  rugged,  showing  masculinity  and 
strength.  Masculinity  is  shown  in  a  strong  muzzle,  large,  clear  eyes, 
ears  that  are  somewhat  larger  than  those  of  the  sow,  a  strong  neck,  and 
well  developed  shoulders.  He  should  possess  straight,  strong  legs,  with 
plenty  of  bone.  The  pasterns  should  be  short  and  straight.  The  body 
of  the  boar  should  be  thicker  than  that  of  the  sow,  with  more  width 
of  back ;  the  back  and  loin  should  be  strong  and  slightly  arched ;  the 
sides,  deep  and  smooth,  with  full  hams. 

The  boar  does  not  show  quite  so  much  refinement  as  the  sow; 
however,  coarseness,  especially  wrinkles  and  creases  about  the 
shoulder,  are  objectionable.    The  sex  organs  should  be  well  developed. 


1028 


*ORK    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA 


Fig.  5. — A  contrast  in  types.  This  excellent  sow,  in  proper  breeding  con- 
dition, Avas  nine  years  old  in  February  and  is  still  a  producer.  She  has  already 
farrowed  142  pigs. 


Fig.   6. — An   old   type   of  brood   sow,   too   heavy   in   the   shoulder   and   jowl, 
lacking  in  udder  development,  and  too  fat  for  best  results. 


10  CALIFORNIA   AGRICULTURAL   EXTENSION    SERVICE  [CiRC.  15 

Selecting  the  Young  Boar  or  Gilt, — If  it  is  necessary  to  purchase 
a  young  boar  or  gilt,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  select  one  that  seems 
too  mature  for  its  age.  Choose  rather  the  boar  or  gilt  that  has  straight, 
strong  legs  and  back,  with  plenty  of  length,  is  slightly  upstanding, 
showing  smoothness  and  quality  throughout. 


FEEDS 

While  the  pig  requires  less  dry  matter  for  a  pound  of  gain  than 
a  cow  or  sheep,  the  capacity  of  the  stomach  and  the  intestinal  tract 
is  such  that  he  is  able  to  make  small  use  of  fiber.  A  greater  amount 
of  concentrates  and  a  relatively  smaller  amount  of  roughages  are 
required  in  producing  pork  than  in  producing  beef  or  mutton.  The 
fact  that  concentrates,  particularly  the  cereal  grains,  carry  relatively 
small  amounts  of  calcium  probably  accounts  for  the  prevalence  of 
rickets  in  swine-producing  sections. 

Hogs  are  kept  to  market  raw  materials  to  advantage.  The  pur- 
chase of  feeds  is  usually  confined  to  supplementing  such  common 
home-grown  feeds  as  barley,  the  grain  sorghums,  corn,  rice  stubble, 
and  cull  fruits.  A  discussion  of  feed  stuffs  is  given  to  enable  the 
producer  to  determine  the  materials  that  should  be  provided  that  a 
maximum  profit  be  obtained.  Hog  feeds  may  be  divided  into  four 
classes : 

First,  carbonaceous  concentrates,  which  are  primarily  the  cereal 
grains  and  other  feeds  containing  large  quantities  of  starches  and 
sugars  and  relatively  small  quantities  of  protein.  The  starches  and 
sugars  produce  energy,  which  is  either  used  up  from  day  to  day  in 
the  ordinary  metabolism  processes,  or  stored  in  the  animal  body  in  the 
form  of  fat. 

Second,  nitrogenous  concentrates,  or  proteins,  which  are  growth- 
producing  elements  and  are  found  in  large  quantities  in  by-products 
of  the  dairy  and  packing  houses,  in  linseed-oil  meal,  and  in  certain 
forages  and  hays,  particularly  the  legumes. 

Third,  forages  and  hays,  particularly  from  the  legume  plants, 
which  provide  variety  in  the  ration  and  also  contain  minerals, 
proteins,  and  vitamins. 

Fourth,  minerals  or  mineral  mixtures  which  seem  necessary  for 
the  proper  growth  and  development  of  the  skeleton,  where  the  normal 
ration  fails  to  provide  enough  calcium,  phosphorus,  sodium,  and 
magnesium. 


1928 J  PORK    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  11 


PREPAKATION  OF  FEEDS 

Cooking  either  grains  or  forage  does  not  increase  the  digestibility 
or  value,  but  probably  decreases  the  digestibility  of  the  proteins. 
Experiments  conducted  at  this  and  other  stations  show  that  cooking 
corn,  barley,  wheat,  oats,  and  the  grain  sorghums  decreases  their 
value  about  10  per  cent. 

It  pays  to  grind,  roll,  or  crush  barley,  wheat,  and  the  grain 
sorghums.  If  such  grains  cannot  be  ground  or  rolled,  it  is  advisable 
to  feed  them  soaked. 


CARBONACEOUS  CONCENTRATES 

Barley. — Barley,  which  is  more  widely  used  as  a  hog  feed  in  this 
state  than  any  other  cereal,  contains  more  protein  and  requires  a 
smaller  amount  of  protein  supplements  than  corn.  Like  corn,  its 
proteins  are  unbalanced  in  composition.  It  is  also  low  in  calcium 
content.  Pigs  fed  barley  or  barley  and  wheat  middlings  in  dry  lot 
need  additional  protein,  either  of  an  animal  origin  or  from  some  such 
legume  as  green  alfalfa  or  alfalfa  hay. 

Barley  contains  somewhat  less  total  digestible  nutrients  than  corn 
and  is  also  higher  in  fiber  content,  thus  being  somewhat  less  valuable 
pound  for  pound  than  corn.  Bacon  and  hams  produced  from  barley, 
however,  are  of  prime  quality.  Barley  is  the  principal  feed  used  in 
Europe  and  in  Canada  for  the  production  of  the  bacon  which  has  such 
an  excellent  reputation  on  the  English  market. 

Henry  and  Morrison^  report  the  average  results  of  eight  trials  at 
northern  experiment  stations  with  pigs  weighing  an  average  of  109 
pounds.  Hogs  fed  barley  and  tankage  gained  1.44  pounds  per  head 
daily,  while  those  fed  corn  and  tankage  gained  1.64  pounds.  The 
former  consumed  439  pounds  of  barley  and  30  pounds  of  tankage 
for  100  pounds  of  gain.  They  required  50  pounds  more  grain  and 
9  pounds  less  tankage  for  100  pounds  of  gain  than  the  hogs  fed  corn. 
Both  groups  were  self -fed. 

At  the  California  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,'*  the  average 
of  five  trials  with  pigs  weighing  from  60  to  120  pounds  shows  a  gain 
of  1.54  pounds  daily;  the  average  feed  consumed  for  100  pounds  of 
gain  was  420  pounds  of  barley  and  42  pounds  of  tankage. 

3  Henry,  W.  A.,  and  F.  B.  Morrison.  Feeds  and  feeding,  a  handbook  for  the 
student  and  stockman,     p.  632.     The  Henry-Morrison  Co.,  Madison,  Wis.     1923. 

4  Hughes,  E.  H.  Rice  and  rice  by-products  as  feeds  for  fattening  swine. 
California  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  420:1-24.     1927. 


12 


CALIFORNIA   AGRICULTURAL    EXTENSION    SERVICE 


[CiRC.  15 


TABLE  1 

Digestible  Nutrients  in  Carbonaceous  Concentrates* 


Feed 


Barley 

Corn 

Wheat 

Oats 

Rye 

Kafir 

Milo 

Sorghum 

Feterita 

Kaoliang 

Rice  (rough) 

Rice  bran 

Rice  polish 

Molasses  (cane  or  blackstrap) 

Raisins 

Artichokes 

Beets  (common) 

Potato 

Sweet  potato 

Pumpkin 


Total 
dry- 
matter 
in  100 
pounds 


pounds 

90.7 
89.5 
89.8 
90.8 
90.6 
88.2 
89.3 
87.3 
88.9 
90.1 
90.4 
89.9 
90.0 
74.3 
87.0 
20.7 
13.0 
21.2 
31.2 
8.3 


Digestible  nutrients  in  100  pounds 


Crude 
protein 


pounds 

9.0 
7.5 
9.2 
9.7 
9.9 
9.0 
8.7 
7.5 
10.1 
8.5 
4.7 
7.9 
8.0 
1.0 
2.8 
1.0 
0.9 
1.1 
0.9 
1.1 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


pounds 

66.8 
67.8 
67.5 
52.1 
68.4 
65.8 
66.2 
66.2 
65.4 
67.0 
64.6 
38.1 
47.2 
58.5 
70.0 
14.6 

9.1 
15.8 
24.2 

4.5 


Fat 


pounds 

1.6 
4.6 
1.5 
3.8 
1.2 
2.3 
2.2 
2.6 
2.4 
3.3 
1.7 
8.8 
7.5 


1.0 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.3 
0.5 


Total 


pounds 

79.4 

85.7 
80.1 
70.4 
81.0 
80.0 
79.9 
79.5 
80.9 
82.9 
73.1 
65.8 
82.1 
59.5 
73.8 
15.8 
10.2 
17.1 
25.8 
6.7 


Nutritive 
ratio 


1:  7.8 
1:10.4 
1:  7.7 
1:  6.3 
1:  7.2 
1:  7.9 
1:  8.2 
1:  9.6 
1:  7.0 
1:  8.8 
1:14.6 
1:  7.3 
1:  9.3 
1:58.5 
1:25.8 
1:14.8 
1:10.3 
1:14.5 
1:27.7 
1:  5.1 


Ash 
in  100 
pounds 


pounds 

2.7 
1.5 
1.9 
3.5 
2.0 
1.7 
2.8 
1.9 
1.5 
1.9 
4.9 
9.7 
4.8 
6.1 
2.2 
1.7 
1.5 
1.1 
1.1 
0.9 


Corn. — Corn  is  the  most  important  pork-producing  crop  in  the 
United  States.  In  total  digestibile  nutrients,  it  exceeds  all  other 
important  carbonaceous  feeds.  Because  of  its  relatively  low  content 
of  proteins  and  its  high  percentage  of  carbohydrates  and  fats,  it  is 
better  for  fattening  than  for  producing  growth.  Corn  supplemented 
with  skim  milk,  buttermilk,  tankage,  or  fish  meal,  however,  produces 
rapid  and  economical  gains.  Yellow  corn,  when  fed  alone,  has  been 
found  to  be  superior  to  white  corn. 

Wheat. — Wheat,  when  ground  and  fed  alone  or  with  protein 
supplements,  produces  more  rapid  and  economical  gains  than  does 
corn,  although  because  of  its  value  for  human  consumption,  very  little 
is  available  for  livestock  feeding. 


■••  Henry,  W.  A,,  and  P.  B.  Morrison.  Feeds  and  feeding,  a  handbook  for  the 
student  and  stockman.  Appendix  tables  I  and  III,  pp.  709-743.  The  Henry- 
Morrison  Co.,  Madison,  Wis.     1923. 


1^^-^J  POKK    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  13 

Oais. — Oats,  when  fed  in  conjunction  with  barley  and  other  feeds, 
are  an  excellent  concentrate  for  brood  sows,  boars,  and  young  gilts 
which  are  to  be  retained  in  the  breeding  herd.  The  high  fiber  content 
and  the  relatively  low  percentage  of  total  digestible  nutrients  are 
factors  which  prevent  the  universal  use  of  oats  in  fattening  young 
pigs. 

Rye. — While  rye  contains  as  high  a  percentage  of  total  digestible 
nutrients  as  barley,  its  limited  production  accounts  for  its  restricted 
use  for  pork  production  in  the  state. 

The  Grain  Sorghums. — The  grain  sorghums,  particularly  kafir  and 
milo,  are  very  popular  swine  feeds  in  the  southwestern  states,  as  well 
as  in  California.  The  total  digestible  nutrients  are  about  equal  in  all 
of  the  grain  sorghums  and  the  ratio  between  the  protein  content  and 
the  carbohydrates  and  fats  varies  only  slightly.  Because  of  their 
extreme  hardness,  these  feeds,  like  barley,  should  be  ground  or  rolled. 
The  proteins  in  them,  as  in  barley  and  corn,  are  unbalanced,  a  factor 
which  necessitates  the  feeding  of  some  animal  protein  when  the  young 
growing  pigs,  fattening  pigs,  or  brood  sows  have  no  access  to  alfalfa 
or  other  legume  pasture.  These  grain  sorghums  are  also  low  in 
calcium. 

Kafir  and  milo  are  considered  by  producers  in  the  southwestern 
states  to  have  a  value  slightly  lower  than  that  of  corn  for  growing 
and  fattening  pigs.  Thompson  and  Voorhies^  found  ground  milo  to  be 
less  efficient  in  fattening  pigs  in  the  dry  lot  than  barley  when  supple- 
mented with  tankage  in  self-feeders. 

Bice  {Rough  or  Paddy). — Rough  or  paddy  rice  does  not  make  a 
satisfactory  hog  feed  when  fed  w^hole  or  cooked  in  dry  lot,  even  when 
supplemented  with  a  nitrogenous  supplement  like  tankage.  It  has 
been  found  satisfactory,  however,  when  ground  fine  and  self -fed  with 
tankage.  With  this  preparation  it  compares  favorably  with  barley 
in  daily  gain  and  amount  required  for  100  pounds  of  gain.  Hogs 
weighing  100  pounds  or  more  do  well  in  rice  stubble. 

Rice  Bran. — This  by-product  of  the  rice-milling  industry  should 
not  be  fed  alone  to  young  growing  or  fattening  pigs.  Although  the 
total  digestible  nutrients  are  somewhat  lower  than  those  of  barley, 
it  is  a  desirable  feed  when  fed  with  a  protein  supplement  and  barley 
or  corn.  There  are  two  defects  in  this  feed :  first,  the  amount  of  fiber 
is  relatively  higher  than  in  most  concentrates ;  and  second,  it  contains 
certain  unsaturated  fatty  acids  which,  if  fed  alone  over  a  long  period 


5  Thompson,  J.  I.,  and  Edwin  C  Voorhies.     Hog  feeding  experiments.     Cali- 
fornia Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  342:373-396.     1922. 


14  CALIFORNIA   AGRICULTURAL   EXTENSION    SERVICE  [CiRC.  15 

of  time,  will  produce  soft  or  oily  pork.  If  it  constitutes  not  more  than 
40  per  cent  of  the  ration,  the  pork  produced  is  not  soft.  Pigs  self-fed 
rice  bran  and  tankage  in  dry  lot  will  consume  about  twice  as  much 
tankage  for  100  pounds  of  gain  as  when  fed  a  ration  of  barley  and 
tankage. 

Rice  Polish. — Rice  polish,  like  rice  bran,  is  a  by-product  of  the 
rice-milling  industry.  It  is  a  more  efficient  feed  than  rice  bran  and 
has  not  the  same  tendency  to  produce  soft  pork.  Because  its  fiber 
content  is  very  low,  it  contains  more  total  digestible  nutrients  than 
barley.  This  feed  should  always  be  fed  with  a  protein  supplement 
and  some  other  carbonaceous  feed  because  of  the  laxative  effect  it 
produces.  Two  lots  of  pigs  at  this  station,^  self-fed  rice  polish  and 
tankage,  gained  as  rapidly  as  did  the  check  lots  fed  rolled  barley  and 
tankage.  For  100  pounds  of  gain  they  consumed  121.17  pounds  less 
rice  polish  and  12.34  pounds  more  tankage  than  did  the  barley  lots. 

Molasses. — When  molasses  is  cheaper  than  barley,  this  feed  may 
be  substituted  for  a  part  of  the  grain  ration.  Molasses  is  used  less 
frequently  in  feeding  swine  than  other  classes  of  livestock. 

Raisins. — Low-grade  and  cull  raisins  are  sometimes  available  for 
swine  feeding.  Raisins  are  a  carbonaceous  feed,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  the  sugar  content  usually  exceeds  60  per  cent.  At  the  California 
station''  it  has  been  found  that  raisins  are  a  desirable  feed  for  grow- 
ing and  fattening  swine  when  fed  in  conjunction  with  barley  and  some 
protein  supplement.  Pigs  fed  raisins  alone  or  with  a  protein  supple- 
ment in  dry  lot  or  on  pasture  often  scour  severely.  Pound  for  pound, 
they  are  not  so  valuable  as  barley  for  fattening  pigs. 

Tubers  and  Vegetables. — Such  products  as  artichokes,  beets,  pota- 
toes, sweet  potatoes,  and  pumpkins  are  relished  by  hogs  and  supply 
a  certain  amount  of  nutrients  and  variety  when  fed  in  conjunction 
wdth  other  feeds.  The  small  amount  of  total  digestible  nutrients  and 
the  large  amount  of  water  in  such  feeds  suggest  their  limitations. 


NITEOGENOUS  CONCENTRATES,  OR  PROTEIN  SUPPLEMENTS 

Dairy  By-Products. — Skim  milk  and  buttermilk  are  the  most 
valuable  supplements  that  may  be  used  to  balance  the  protein 
deficiencies  in  the  cereal  grains.  The  amino  acids  which  are  necessary 
for  growth  and  which  are  found  in  these  protein  feeds  are  not  usually 

6  Hughes,  E.  H.  Rice  and  rice  by-products  as  feeds  for  fattening  swine. 
California  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  420:1-24.     1927. 

7  Hughes,  E.  H.  The  feeding  value  of  raisins  and  dairy  by-products  for 
growing  and  fattening  swine.     California  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  440:1-12.     1927. 


1928] 


PORK   PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA 


15 


found  in  large  quantities  in  the  grains.  Calcium  and  phosphorus, 
which  are  necessary  for  the  development  of  the  skeleton  and  which 
help  balance  the  lime  deficiency  of  the  carbonaceous  part  of  the  ration, 
are  also  found  in  skim  milk  and  buttermilk.  These  supplements 
are  excellent  feeds  for  the  brood  sow,  because  proteins,  phosphorus, 
and  lime  are  very  necessary  for  the  development  of  the  fetus  during 
the  gestation  period  and  for  the  production  of  milk  for  the  growing 
litter  during  lactation.  Skim  milk  and  buttermilk  should  always  be 
pasteurized  before  being  fed  to  swine,  in  order  that  tuberculosis  and 
other  diseases  may  not  be  contracted  from  this  source. 

Skim  milk,  buttermilk,  or  whey  may  be  fed  separately  or  with 
barley  or  a  mixture  of  grain  feeds  in  the  form  of  a  slop.  The  ratio 
of  1  pound  of  rolled  barley  to  3  pounds  of  one  of  these  by-products 
gives  excellent  results  and  provides  a  slop  of  about  the  right 
consistency. 

TABLE  2 
Digestible  Nutrients  in"  Protein  Supplements* 


Feed 


Skim  milk 

Buttermilk 

Dried  skim  milk 

Dried  buttermilk 

Whey 

Tankage 

Fish  meal 

Wheat  bran 

Wheat  middlings 

Linseed  oil  meal  (old  process). 

Cottonseed  meal  (good) 

Coconut  meal  (new  process) 

Beans,  navy 

Pea,  field 

Cow  pea  seed 

Soybean  meal 

Alfalfa  hay 

Alfalfa  meal 

Alfalfa  leaves 

Green  alfalfa 

Green  rape 


Total 
dry 
matter 
in  100 
pounds 


pounds 

9.9 
9.4 
95.5 
88.3 
6.6 
92.1 
89.5 
89.9 
89.5 
90.9 
92.1 
90.0 
86.6 
90.8 
88.4 
90.1 
91.4 
91.2 
93.4 
25.3 
16.7 


Digestible  nutrients  in  100  pounds 


Crude 
protein 


pounds 

3.6 
3.4 
32.5 
29.3 
0.8 
56.2 
40.1 
12.5 
13.4 
30.2 
31.6 
19.9 
18.8 
19.0 
19.4 
33.2 
10.6 
10.2 
17.3 
3.3 
2.6 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


pounds 

5.1 

4.9 

49.9 

41.0 

4.7 


41.6 
46.2 
32.6 
25.6 
44.2 
51.3 
55.8 
54.5 
24.7 
39.0 
38.7 
35.9 
10.4 
10.0 


Fat 


pounds 

0.2 
0.1 
1.9 
6.2 
0.3 
7.2 
8.3 
3.0 
4.3 
6.7 
7.8 
3.0 
0.8 
0.6 
1.1 
16.1 
0.9 
0.8 
3.0 
0.4 
0.3 


Total 


pounds 

9.1 
8.4 
86.7 
84.2 
6.2 
71.4 
58.8 
60.9 
69.3 
77.9 
74.8 
70.8 
71.9 
76.2 
76.4 
94.1 
51.6 
50.7 
60.0 
14.6 
13.3 


Nutritive 
ratio 


1:1.5 
1:1.5 
1:1.7 
1:1.9 
1:6.8 
1:0.3 
1:0.5 
1:3.9 
1:4.2 
1:1.6 
1:1.4 
1:2.6 
1:2.8 
1:3.0 
1:2.9 
1:1.8 
1:3.9 
1:4.0 
1:2.5 
1:3.4 
1:4.1 


Ash 
in  100 
pounds 


pounds 

0.7 
0.7 

25.1 
8.1 
0.7 

15.3 

28.1 
6.3 
4.4 
5.4 
6.4 
6.0 
3.6 
3.4 
3.4 
5.3 
8.6 
9.0 

13.6 
2.4 
2.2 


*  Henry,  W.  A.,  and  F.  B.  Morrison.  Feeds  and  feeding,  a  handbook  for  the 
student  and  stockman.  Appendix  tables  I  and  III,  pp.  709-743.  The  Henry- 
Morrison  Co.,  Madison,  Wis.     1923. 


16  CALIFORNIA   AGRICULTURAL   EXTENSION    SERVICE  [ClRG.  15 

Taukage  fed  with  barley  is  the  most  satisfactory  substitute  for 
skim  milk.  Thompson  and  Voorhies,^  reporting  an  average  of  two 
trials,  found  that  pigs  fed  barley  and  skim  milk  made  an  average 
daily  gain  of  1.56  pounds  per  head,  consuming  455  pounds  of  barley 
and  666  pounds  of  skim  milk  for  each  100  pounds  of  gain ;  that  those 
fed  barley  and  tankage  made  an  average  daily  gain  of  1.43  pounds, 
consuming  498  pounds  of  barley  and  19  pounds  of  tankage  for  each 
100  pounds  of  gain. 

Hughes^  fed  two  lots  of  pigs  in  dry  lot,  the  average  initial  w^eight 
of  the  first  group  being  54.IJ3  pounds,  and  of  the  second  group  77.10 
pounds.  An  average  daily  gain  of  1.73  pounds  was  obtained  for  both 
groups;  and  for  every  100  pounds  of  gain,  281.31  pounds  of  barley, 
712.18  pounds  of  skim  milk,  and  3.92  pounds  of  tankage  were  required. 

Buttermilk  which  has  not  been  diluted  has  about  the  same  chemical 
composition  and  total  digestible  nutrients  as  skim  milk,  and  while  the 
results  of  one  trial  at  California  indicate  it  to  be  slightly  inferior  to 
skim  milk  when  fed  with  barley,  those  reported  by  Wilson  at  the 
South  Dakota  station^^  show  it  to  have  an  equal  value  when  fed  with 
corn. 

Concerning  dried  skim  milk  and  buttermilk,  there  is  not  much 
available  information.  They  contain  about  one-half  as  much  protein 
as  does  tankage,  and  the  price  is  relatively  higher.  Feeding  tests  are 
being  conducted  at  this  station  to  obtain  information  on  these  feeds. 

Whey  contains  about  6.2  pounds  of  total  digestible  nutrients  in 
100  pounds.  Of  this  amount,  only  0.8  pound  is  protein,  the  remainder 
having  been  removed  in  the  form  of  casein  during  the  cheese-making 
process.  Because  of  the  low  protein  content,  whey  was  formerly 
thought  to  have  little  value  as  a  supplement  to  the  grains.  A  feeding 
trial  at  this  station,  however,  showed  that  although  more  whey  and 
grain  are  required  for  100  pounds  of  gain  than  when  skim  milk  was 
fed,  and  the  daily  gain  was  somewhat  less,  it  is  of  considerable  value. 

Surprising  results  were  obtained  by  Morrison  and  KusselP^  at 
the  Wisconsin  station  when  two  lots  of  pigs  self-fed  barley  and  all 
the  whey  they  would  consume  gained  2.22  pounds  per  head  daily. 


8  Thompson,  J.  1.,  and  Edwin  C.  Voorhies.  Hog  feeding  experiments.  Cali- 
fornia Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  342:373-396.     1922. 

9  Hughes,  E.  H.,  The  feeding  value  of  raisins  and  dairy  by-products  for 
growing  and  fattening  swane.     California  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  440:1-12.     1927. 

10  Wilson,  James  W.  Fattening  pigs.  South  Dakota  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui. 
319:70-71.     1912. 

11  Morrison,  F.  B.,  and  H.  L.  Russell.  Experiments  in  farming.  Wisconsin 
Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  319:70-71.  1920;  also  New  farm  facts.  Wisconsin  Agr. 
Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  323:8-10.     1920. 


1928]  PORK   PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  17 

They  required  353  pounds  of  barley  and  854  pounds  of  whey  for 
100  pounds  of  gain.  The  pigs  used  in  these  trials  were  well  grown 
and  weighed  from  125  to  150  pounds  when  placed  on  feed.  It  is  hard 
to  explain  these  results  because  of  the  low  protein  content  of  whey. 
The  protein  must  be  of  excellent  quality. 

Tankage. — Tankage,  or  meat  meal,  is  a  by-product  of  the  packing 
house,  extremely  rich  in  digestible  protein.  Calcium  and  phosphorus 
are  present  in  appreciable  amounts.  The  proteins  of  this  feed  combine 
w^ell  with  those  of  the  cereal  grains  to  produce  rapid  growth.  This 
product  is  being  fed  by  pork  producers  in  all  sections  of  the  United 
States.  Being  cooked  under  high  pressure  and  thoroughly  dried,  it 
is  a  safe  feed  to  use.  Excepting  the  by-products  of  the  dairy,  no  other 
protein  feed  has  met  with  such  favor  among  hog  producers.  Because 
of  its  high  protein  content,  it  takes  a  relatively  small  amount  of  this 
feed  to  balance  a  corn  or  barley  ration  for  the  growing  or  fattening 
pig,  the  boar,  or  the  brood  sow.  A  ration  of  ten  parts  of  barley  or 
corn  to  one  part  of  tankage,  by  weight,  has  become  a  standard  ration 
for  hogs  in  dry  lot.  Where  alfalfa  or  other  green  pasture  is  available, 
the  amount  of  tankage  can  be  reduced.  Very  young  pigs  wall  do 
better  if  such  a  feed  as  wheat  middlings  or  linseed-oil  meal  is  added 
to  a  barley  and  tankage  ration.  A  standard  60  per  cent  protein 
tankage  is  recommended. 

The  results  of  several  experiments  at  the  California  station  show- 
that  a  ration  of  rolled  barley  and  tankage  self -fed  in  dry  lot  produced 
gains  of  1.54  pounds  per  head  daily  on  pigs  weighing  60  to  120  pounds 
and  that  420  pounds  of  rolled  barley  and  42  pounds  of  tankage 
were  required  for  100  pounds  of  gain.  Excellent  results  are  usually 
obtained  by  feeding  barley  and  tankage  in  separate  self-feeders;  how- 
ever, these  feeds  can  be  mixed  and  then  placed  in  the  feeder.  For 
young  pigs,  a  mixture  of  rolled  barley,  wheat  middlings,  and  tankage 
put  in  a  self-feeder  produces  excellent  results,  especially  if  a  little 
skim  milk  is  fed  in  addition. 

Fish  Meal. — While  this  product  contains  less  digestible  protein 
than  tankage  and  has  less  total  digestible  nutrients,  surprisingly  good 
results  have  been  obtained  from  its  use.  It  contains  more  than  25  per 
cent  ash  or  mineral  matter,  much  of  which  is  calcium  and  phosphorus. 
Henry  and  Morrison^^  report  in  a  summary  of  experiments  conducted 
in  various  experiment  stations,  that  pigs  fed  a  carbonaceous  concen- 
trate with  fish  meal  gained  more  rapidly  and  required  slightly  less  feed 


12  Henry,  W.  A.,  and  F.  B.  Morrison.     Feeds  and  feeding,  a  handbook  for  the 
student  and  stockman,     p.  653.     The  Henry-Morrison  Co.,  Madison,  Wis.     1923. 


18  CALIFORNIA    AGRICULTURAL   EXTENSION    SERVICE  [CiRC.  15 

for  their  gains  than  did  pigs  fed  a  carbonaceous  concentrate  and 
tankage.  Thompson  and  Voorhies,^^  on  the  other  hand,  found  that 
barley  and  tankage  were  superior  to  barley  and  fish  meal. 

Wheat  Bran. — Wheat  bran  is  an  excellent  addition  to  the  ration  of 
a  brood  sow,  both  before  and  after  farrowing.  It  is  a  bulky,  slightly 
laxative  feed.  Because  of  its  bulky  nature,  it  is  not  a  good  feed  for 
fattening  pigs. 

Wheat  Middlings. — Wheat  middlings  or  shorts  is  a  very  popular 
feed  among  pork  producers.  Although  the  protein  content  is  not  high 
and  the  proteins  do  not  balance  those  of  the  cereals,  a  mixture  of 
wheat  middlings,  rolled  barley,  and  either  skim  milk  or  tankage  pro- 
duces excellent  results  if  fed  to  the  young  growing  pigs  before  and, 
particularly,  after  weaning. 

Linseed-Oil  Meal. — Linseed-oil  meal  is  not  used  so  extensively  in 
this  state  as  in  other  sections  of  the  country.  Because  the  proteins 
in  this  feed  are  similar  to  those  of  barley  and  other  grains,  the  feeder 
should  not  expect  maximum  results  by  feeding  barley  and  linseed-oil 
meal  alone.  A  ration  of  barley,  linseed-oil  meal,  and  tankage  or  skim 
milk,  however,  will  give  excellent  returns.  This  feed  is  used  exten- 
sively by  purebred  hog  men  fitting  hogs  for  the  shows. 

Coconut  Meal. — Coconut  meal,  when  not  rancid,  can  be  fed  with 
barley  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  to  three  or  four  parts  of  barley, 
by  weight,  on  alfalfa  pasturage.  Coconut  meal  and  barley  should 
not  be  fed  in  dry  lot  without  the  addition  of  some  animal  protein  such 
as  skim  milk,  tankage,  or  fish  meal. 

Cottonseed  Meal. — As  cottonseed  meal  is  poisonous  to  swine,  its 
use  as  a  swine  feed  is  not  recommended.  It  contains  about  half  as 
much  protein  as  tankage  does. 

Beans. — Navy  beans  should  always  be  cooked  and  fed  with  barley 
or  corn.  Salt  added  to  the  water  when  cooking  adds  palatability  to 
this  mixture.    Pigs  fed  beans  alone  produce  soft,  watery  carcasses. 

Field  Peas. — Peas  are  not  commonly  thrashed  and  fed  to  hogs; 
however,  in  some  sections,  particularly  in  the  northern  and  north- 
western states,  they  are  grown  and  then  hogged  down.  Where  field 
peas  can  be  grown  successfully,  they  make,  with  oats  or  barley,  an 
excellent  crop  for  hogging-down  purposes. 

Cow  Peas  and  8oy-Bean  Meal. — Though  these  feeds  are  not  grown 
extensively  in  this  state,  soy  beans  are  being  fed  in  large  quantities 
in  some  corn-belt  areas.     Soy-bean  meal  has  a  high  protein  and  fat 

13  Thompson,  J.  I.,  and  Edwin  C.  Vooihies.  Hog  feeding  experiments.  Cali- 
fornia Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  342:373-396.     1922. 


1928]  PORK    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  19 

content.  Pigs  do  well  when  fed  this  meal  with  barley  or  corn  and 
some  animal  protein,  such  as  tankage.  Soy-bean  meal,  like  peanut 
meal  or  rice  bran,  when  fed  in  too  large  quantities,  produces  soft  pork. 

Alfalfa  Hay,  Alfalfa  Meal,  and  Alfalfa  Leaves. — While  these  feeds 
are  too  bulky  to  feed  young  growing  pigs  in  large  quantities,  they 
carry  an  excellent  variety  of  proteins  and  are  high  in  lime  and  fat- 
soluble  vitamins.  When  mixed  with  barley  or  barley  and  some  supple- 
ment, 5  or  10  per  cent  by  weight  is  sufficient  alfalfa  to  include.  The 
addition  of  alfalfa  hay  (chopped)  or  alfalfa  meal  to  a  ration  of  barley 
and  some  plant  protein  supplement,  such  as  wheat  middlings  or 
linseed-oil  meal,  gives  excellent  results  because  of  the  character  of 
proteins  in  alfalfa  and  the  ash  that  it  contains. 

During  the  wet  winter  months  wlien  brood  sows  cannot  be  pastured 
on  alfalfa,  alfalfa  hay  should  constitute  a  regular  part  of  their  rations. 


rORAGE  CROPS 

Forage  crops  are  recognized  as  a  necessary  adjunct  to  any  well- 
organized  pork-producing  plant.  Brood  sows,  boars,  and  growing 
and  fattening  pigs,  when  pastured  on  alfalfa  or  other  forage,  exercise 
naturally,  receive  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  and  are  more  healthy 
than  those  kept  in  small,  cramped  quarters.  Experiments  have  shown 
that  pigs  fed  on  forage  crops  gain  more  rapidly  and  that  the  tonic 
effects  of  the  succulence,  the  laxative  properties  of  the  green  feed,  and 
the  variety  of  proteins,  the  vitamins,  and  the  minerals  supplied  are 
responsible  for  the  thrift,  health,  and  growth  of  pigs  produced  in  this 
manner. 

When  grains  are  high  in  price  or  are  not  available,  pigs  can  be 
maintained  and  grown  w^ith  a  minimum  amount  of  concentrates  if 
forage  crops  are  used.  The  latter,  especially  the  legumes,  reduce 
the  amount  of  commercial  protein  supplements  necessary  to  balance 
the  ration  and  reduce  the  feed  necessary  to  produce  100  pounds  of 
gain  in  growing  or  fattening  pigs. 

Alfalfa. — Alfalfa  pasture  is  recognized  as  the  best  forage  crop  for 
pigs  because  it  may  be  grazed  for  a  long  period  of  time  and  is  pala- 
table, its  proteins  balance  those  of  grains  fed,  and  it  has  a  high  calcium 
content.  This  crop  also  produces  a  larger  tonnage  per  acre  than  any 
other  common  forage.  During  the  few  short  periods  in  the  winter 
when  the  ground  is  too  soft  for  pasture,  the  brood  sows  and  pigs 
should  be  removed  to  dry  lot  and  good,  clean,  leafy  alfalfa  hay 
substituted  for  the  forage. 


20  CALIFORNIA   AGRICULTURAL   EXTENSION    SERVICE  [CiRC.  15 

Excellent  gains  can  be  secured  by  feeding  a  ration  of  fifteen  parts 
rolled  barley  and  one  part  tankage,  by  weight,  to  pigs  weighing  from 
50  to  200  pounds,  on  alfalfa  pasturage.  No  forage  lias  been  found 
to  equal  alfalfa  for  brood  sows,  during  either  the  gestation  or  the 
lactation  period. 

Barley  and  Rape. — Where  alfalfa  pasture  is  not  available,  a  mix- 
ture of  barley  and  rape  may  be  substituted  satisfactorily.  If  sown  in 
September  or  October,  this  forage  provides  an  excellent  winter  pas- 
ture during  the  time  when  alfalfa  does  not  grow  rapidly.  For  early 
spring  pasture  it  can  be  sown  either  in  January  or  February.  The 
barley  should  be  sown  at  the  rate  of  about  fifty  pounds  to  the  acre 
and  the  rape  (Dwarf  Essex)  at  about  eight  pounds.  They  can  be 
either  drilled  or  sown  broadcast.  For  the  best  results  this  crop  should 
be  8  or  12  inches  in  height  before  pigs  or  brood  sows  are  turned  in 
on  it  (fig.  7). 

Sudan  Grass. — Sudan  grass  sown  at  the  rate  of  from  eighteen  to 
twenty  pounds  to  the  acre  about  the  first  of  May,  when  the  soil  has 
become  warm,  is  becoming  popular  as  a  summer  pasture.  Sudan 
yields  a  heavy  tonnage  if  a  good  stand  is  secured.  It  does  not  provide 
so  great  a  variety  of  proteins  nor  so  large  an  amount  of  calcium  or 
phosphorus  as  alfalfa  pasture. 

Barley,  Field  Peas,  and  Vetch. — A  mixture  of  barley,  field  peas, 
and  vetch  has  been  reported  by  some  producers  in  this  state  to  be 
bringing  excellent  results.  Such  a  mixture  provides  carbohydrates 
and  a  variety  of  proteins  and  minerals,  but  will  not  stand  severe 
pasturing. 

MINEEALS 

During  the  domestication  of  the  pig,  the  development  of  breeds, 
and  the  improvement  of  swine,  the  producer  has  selected  a  type  of 
hog  that  grows  more  rapidly  and  develops  early.  The  value  of  a 
balance  between  the  carbohydrates,  fats,  and  proteins  necessary  for 
growth  was  found  long  before  a  knowledge  of  the  requirements  of 
minerals  in  the  diet  was  obtained.  The  prevalence  of  stiffness  and 
posterior  paralysis  (rickets)  has  brought  about  an  effort  among 
experiment  station  workers  in  animal  husbandry  to  obtain  information 
and  to  understand  more  clearly  the  various  mineral  requirements 
necessary  for  the  proper  development  of  the  skeleton. 

The  common  grains  fed  to  hogs  are  deficient  in  calcium  or  lime, 
and  the  nitrogenous  supplements  necessary  to  balance  the  deficiency 
of  protein  in  such  feeds,  unless  they  be  dairy  by-products,  tankage, 


1928] 


PORK    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA 


21 


fish  meal,  or  alfalfa,  do  not  j^rovide  enough  calcium  for  the  proper 
development  of  the  skeleton.  Even  though  the  animal  feeds  men- 
tioned— dairy  by-products,  tankage,  fish  meal — be  fed,  alfalfa  pasture 
should  also  be  provided  to  avoid  a  possible  lime  deficiency. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  the  feeding  of  a  straight  grain  ration 
or  a  grain  ration  supplemented  with  such  a  protein  feed  as  linseed- 
oil  meal  during  the  gestation  period  results  in  small,  weak  pigs  at 
birth.  This  condition  is  brought  about  by  a  calcium  and  a  protein 
deficiency  in  the  ration,  which  results  in  an  improper  development 
of  the  fetus.      A  continued  deficiency  in  the  diet  of  the  brood  sow. 


Fig.  7. — Young  gilts,  weighing  about  TH  pounds,  on  barley  and  rape 
forage;  some  concentrates  were  fed  in  addition. 


if  two  litters  are  produced  annually,  usually  results  in  sterility  or 
posterior  paralysis.  The  addition  of  alfalfa  hay  to  such  a  ration  has 
been  found  to  be  very  beneficial.  Young  pigs  fed  a  straight  grain 
ration  without  access  to  alfalfa  pasture  or  mineral  mixture  grow  very 
slowly,  become  nervous,  stiffened  in  their  legs,  and  finally  break  down 
with  severe  rickets.  Hughes^^  at  this  station,  by  feeding  rolled  barley 
(all  the  pigs  would  consume)  or  rolled  barley  and  salt,  produced 
rickets,  both  in  the  presence  and  in  the  absence  of  direct  sunlight. 
However,  those  fed  in  the  absence  of  sunlight  always  developed 
symptoms  .of  rickets  before  those  that  had  access  to  direct  sunlight. 
Sunlight  probably  has  a  beneficial  effect  on  calcium  metabolism. 

Mineral  mixtures,  where  rations  deficient  in  calcium  or  calcium 
and  phosphorus  are  being  fed,  can  be  mixed  with  the  feed  or  fed 

14  Unpublished  data. 


22  CALIFORNIA   AGRICULTURAL   EXTENSION    SERVICE  [CiRC.  15 

separately  in  small  boxes  in  the  lots,  to  which  the  brood  sows  and  pigs 
have  free  access.  The  addition  of  one-half  pound  of  air-slacked  lime 
or  finely  ground  limestone  to  100  pounds  of  concentrate  feeds  will  be 
found  beneficial  to  practically  all  rations  fed  to  swine  in  this  state. 
While  complex  mineral  mixtures  are  not  recommended,  a  mixture  of 
common  salt,  air-slacked  lime  (not  quicklime)  and  finely  ground  bone 
meal,  equal  parts,  has  been  used  very  successfully  at  the  University 
Farm,  for  brood  sows,  boars,  and  growing  and  fattening  pigs.  Other 
mixtures,  such  as  equal  parts  of  air-slacked  lime  or  ground  limestone 
and  salt,  or  equal  parts  of  wood  ashes  and  salt,  may  be  used. 

Recent  investigations  have  shown  that  common  salt  adds  to  the 
palatability  of  the  ration  and  that  its  presence  stimulates  the  digestive 
glands.  The  addition  of  1  per  cent  of  salt  to  the  grain  ration  has 
become  a  universal  recommendation.  Cereal  grains  supplemented 
with  a  protein  rich  feed  supply  enough  phosphorus  for  normal  growth 
and  development.  Both  the  grains  (especially  barley,  corn,  and  the 
sorghums)  and  the  supplements  contain  phosphorus. 


FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  BREEDING  HERD 

THE  BOAR 

The  boar  holds  a  very  important  and  prominent  position  in  the 
breeding  herd.  Care  should  be  exercised  in  his  feeding  and  manage- 
ment, particularly  during  the  breeding  season.  At  this  time  he  should 
be  fed  a  ration  that  will  maintain  his  condition  during  a  season  of 
heavy  service.  Such  a  ration  must  be  well  supplied  with  energy  and 
carry  a  high  protein  and  mineral  content.  Rolled  barley  or  rolled 
barley  and  wheat  middlings,  equal  parts,  with  the  addition  of  10  per 
cent  of  tankage  by  weight,  mixed  with  enough  skim  milk  to  form  a 
thick  slop  will  meet  his  requirements. 

A  mineral  mixture  should  be  self -fed  or  added  to  the  ration  at  the 
rate  of  2  per  cent.  The  boar  should  have  access  to  some  pasture, 
preferably  alfalfa,  if  possible.  If  not,  a  little  alfalfa  hay  is  a  good 
substitute.  The  amount  to  feed  will  depend  on  his  condition  and  on 
the  intensity  of  the  breeding  season.  If  working  to  full  capacity,  all 
the  feed  he  will  clean  up  twice  daily  is  not  too  much. 

After  the  breeding  season  is  over,  his  daily  ration  can  be  reduced 
in  quantity  and  slowly  changed  to  one  containing  more  carbohydrates 
and  less  protein.  If,  during  the  season  of  heavy  service,  he  has  lost 
weight,  the  ration  should  not  be  reduced  until  medium  condition  has 
been  regained. 


1^28]  PORK    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  23 

The  boar  lot  is  usually  located  apart  from  the  rest  of  the  herd.  A 
quiet  place,  accessible  to  forage,  and  of  a  size  large  enough  to  insure 
sufficient  exercise  is  desirable.  Clean,  dry,  well-ventilated  quarters, 
with  shade  in  summer,  are  necessary. 

Boars  often  become  nervous,  restless,  and  irritable  and  refuse  to 
eat.  This  condition  may  be  overcome  in  most  instances  by  placing 
a  barrow  or  bred  sow  with  him  for  company. 

Two  methods  of  breeding  may  be  followed,  one  known  as  hand 
mating,  the  other  as  promiscuous  mating,  where  the  boar  is  allowed 
to  run  with  the  sows.  The  system  of  hand  mating  is  preferable. 
When  such  a  system  is  followed,  a  mature  boar  in  vigorous  condition 
can  be  mated  to  about  thirty  sows  during  the  active  breeding  season. 
The  breeding  of  one  sow  a  day  is  a  most  desirable  practice,  but  a  boar 
may  be  mated  to  two  sows  a  day  with  satisfactory  results,  if  one  is 
bred  in  the  morning  and  the  other  at  night,  provided  he  has  a  day 
of  rest  occasionally. 

The  sow,  when  in  heat,  may  be  brought  to  the  boar  or  the  boar 
may  be  driven  to  the  sow's  pen.  Only  one  service  should  be  permitted, 
as  this  is  enough  to  insure  pregnancy  if  the  sow  and  boar  are  normal. 
After  being  bred,  it  is  good  practice  to  separate  her  from  the  open 
sows.  Her  number  should  be  taken  and  a  record  of  the  time  of  mating 
made  on  the  breeding  record. 

Where  it  is  necessary  to  breed  large  sows  to  young  boars  or  young 
gilts  to  mature  boars,  the  use  of  a  breeding  crate  may  be  found 
advantageous. 

The  feeding  and  management  of  the  young  boar  is  similar  to  "that 
of  the  mature  animal.  A  growing  ration  containing  a  high  protein 
content,  with  plenty  of  calcium  and  phosphorus,  is  essential  for  maxi- 
mum growth.  Rolled  barley,  or  rolled  barley  and  wheat  middlings, 
supplemented  with  skim  milk,  buttermilk,  tankage,  or  fish  meal, 
provides  energy  and  growth-forming  elements.  Access  to  alfalfa 
forage,  where  exercise  is  taken  naturally,  and  free  access  to  a  mineral 
mixture  should  provide  the  young  growing  boar  with  all  the  essential 
nutrients.  The  lot  where  the  young  boar  or  boars  are  kept  should 
be  away  from  the  sow  herd,  particularly  during  the  breeding  season. 
The  young  boar  at  eight  or  nine  months  of  age  may  be  used  on  a 
limited  number  of  sows  without  checking  his  growth.  A  day  or  two 
of  rest  between  services  is  advisable. 


24  CALIFORNIA   AGRICULTURAL    EXTENSION    SERVICE  [ClRC.  15 


THE  BROOD  SOW 

Under  California  conditions,  with  proper  management,  the  sow 
should  produce  two  litters  a  year,  one  in  the  spring  and  one  in  the 
fall.  It  is  advisable  to  have  spring  litters  farrowed  on  or  after 
March  1.  Plowever,  pigs  farrowed  during  February  do  very  well  in 
most  sections  of  the  state,  provided  weather  conditions  are  normal. 
Sows  should  not  be  bred  to  farrow  much  later  than  May  1,  as  the  hot 
weather  and  flies  often  retard  the  normal  growth  of  young  pigs.  Fall 
litters  should  be  farrowed  on  or  after  September  1.  It  is  undesirable 
to  have  sows  farrow  during  the  winter  months,  for  the  mortality  due 
to  cold,  wet  weather  is  high  in  very  young  pigs.  Moreover,  it  is 
difficult  to  keep  small  suckling  pigs  in  a  thrifty,  vigorous  condition 
during  the  winter. 

Breeding  for  spring  litters  should  start  about  November  10,  and 
for  fall  litters  about  May  10. 

Age  to  Breed. — The  age  to  breed  a  gilt  depends  to  a  great  extent 
upon  the  development  of  the  individual  rather  than  upon  the  age.  A 
stage  of  growth  should  be  reached  where  the  demands  of  the  develop- 
ing litter  and  subsequent  suckling  period  will  not  materially  affect 
her  own  development.  In  general,  the  practice  of  breeding  gilts  to 
farrow  at  twelve  months  is  satisfactory.  When  size  is  desired  in  the 
mature  sow,  the  gilt  is  allowed  to  rest  one  season  after  she  farrows 
her  first  litter.  Another  method  practiced  to  secure  size  is  to  breed 
gilts  to  farrow  at  the  age  of  eighteen  months.  By  this  system,  a  gilt 
has  practically  reached  her  maximum  growth  and  development  when 
she  farrows  her  first  litter,  and  should  produce  regularly  every  six 
months  thereafter. 

As  a  general  rule,  gilts  farrow  fewer  and  smaller  pigs  than  mature 
sows.  The  Illinois  station^^  reported  7.5  pigs  averaging  2.44  pounds 
as  the  average  litter  farrowed  by  gilts  from  one  to  one  and  one-half 
years  old.  Sows  two  years  of  age  or  older  farrowed  an  average  of 
8.6  pigs  weighing  2.61  pounds. 

Since  mature  sows  farrow  larger  litters  and  have  larger  pigs  at 
birth  than  do  gilts,  it  is  poor  policy  to  put  too  much  dependence  on 
gilts  for  the  pig  crop. 

Sows  at  the  California  station  during  a  period  of  six  years  far- 
rowed 280  litters  averaging  8.38  pigs  farrowed  and  6.37  pigs  raised. 


^5  OaiTnichael,  W.  J.,  and  John  B.  Rice.  VaiiationvS  in  farrow;  Avith  special 
reference  to  the  birth  weight  of  pigs.  Illinois  Agr.  Exp.  8ta.  Bui.  226:67-95. 
1920. 


I'^-^J  PORK   PRODUCTION    IN    CALIP^ORNIA  25 

Breedmg  Season. — The  condition  of  the  sow  at  the  time  of  service 
is  largely  responsible  for  the  size  of  the  litter  and  vigor  of  the  pigs 
at  birth.  A  sow  that  is  excessively  fat  or  very  thin  may  not  come  in 
heat.  If  the  boar  is  accepted  under  these  conditions,  very  often  the 
litters  will  be  small  or  she  may  even  fail  to  conceive. 

At  breeding  time  she  should  be  in  active  breeding  condition ;  that 
is,  in  medium  flesh,  and  gaining  from  one-half  to  one  pound  daily. 
Best  results  will  be  obtained  if  the  sows  are  on  good  pasture,  prefer- 
ably alfalfa,  with  enough  concentrates  to  give  the  desired  gain.  A 
ration  of  rolled  barley  and  tankage  fed  at  the  rate  of  12  pounds  of 
barley  to  1  pound  of  tankage,  with  a  suitable  mineral  mixture,  will 
furnish  the  necessary  nutrients. 


Fig.  8. — Purebred  brood  sows  taking  advantage  of  clean  young 
alfalfa  pasturage. 

Sows  usually  come  in  heat  three  to  five  days  after  weaning  the 
pigs.  The  period  of  heat  lasts  about  three  days  and  occurs  every 
twenty  to  twenty-one  days  in  open  sows.  It  is  only  during  this  period 
of  heat  that  the  normal  sow  will  accept  the  boar. 

The  gestation  period  varies  from  112  to  116  days,  with  114  as  the 
average.  By  keeping  an  accurate  breeding  record,  the  farrowing  date 
may  be  calculated  easily.  This  record  is  of  considerable  importance 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  care  of  the  sow  during  the  week  before 
farrowing. 

Feeding  the  Pregnant  Sows. — Sows  on  good  pasture  (fig.  8)  in  the 
summer  months  with  an  ample  supply  of  fresh,  clean  water,  and 
shade,  will  need  but  little  grain  during  the  first  seventy-five  days  of 
the  gestation  period.  A  liberal  grain  ration  should  be  fed  during  the 


26  CALIFORNIA    AGRICULTURAL   EXTENSION    SERVICE  [CiRC.  15 

last  month  of  pregnancy,  as  75  per  cent  of  the  development  of  the 
fetus  takes  place  during  this  period.  Since  the  developing  litter 
consists  largely  of  protein  and  ash,  a  liberal  supply  of  these  materials 
in  the  ration  will  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  developing  fetus.  If  the 
necessary  nutrients  are  not  supplied,  they  will  be  drawn  from  the 
body  of  the  dam.  Consequently,  the  sow  will  farrow  and  begin  her 
lactation  period  in  a  relatively  weakened  condition.  Under  these 
circumstances,  the  litter  will  be  improperly  nourished  and  a  large 
percentage  of  weak,  unthrifty  pigs  and  a  high  mortality  will  result. 
It  is  also  important  to  regulate  feeding  so  that  the  sow  will  not  be 
overly  fat  at  farrowing  time,  for  this  condition  also  results  in  poorly 
developed  pigs  and  difficult  farrowing. 

For  short  periods  of  time  during  the  winter  months,  when  pasture 
is  not  available,  concentrates  such  as  barley,  milo,  or  corn,  supple- 
mented with  skim  milk  or  tankage,  should  make  up  the  major  part 
of  the  ration.  Leafy  alfalfa  hay,  fed  in  racks,  scattered  on  feeding 
platforms,  or  chopped  and  mixed  with  the  grain  is  the  best  substitute 
for  alfalfa  pasture.  Alfalfa  hay  is  bulky  and  should  constitute  not 
more  than  10  to  12  per  cent  of  the  ration  when  mixed  with  grain. 
Roots  and  tubers  are  of  value  from  the  standpoint  of  succulence. 

Housing  presents  more  of  a  problem  in  the  winter  than  in  the 
summer.  Too  often  sows  about  to  farrow  have  inadequate  shelter  or 
are  turned  into  barns  or  sheds  with  other  livestock.  This  is  poor 
practice.  Clean,  warm,  well-bedded  sleeping  quarters  with  sufficient 
ventilation  and  plenty  of  room  outside  for  exercise  are  desirable. 

Management  at  Farrowing  Time. — Careless,  improper  manage- 
ment at  farrowing  time  may  easily  represent  the  difference  between 
profit  and  loss.  A  sow  raising  four  pigs  requires  as  much  care  and 
nearly  as  much  feed  as  one  raising  eight,  thus  making  the  initial  cost 
of  each  pig  in  the  former  case  almost  double  that  in  the  latter.  Losses 
due  to  a  high  death  rate  and  to  weak,  unthrifty  pigs  may  be  largely 
overcome  by  proper  feeding  and  management. 

Placing  the  sow  in  the  farrowing  pen  from  four  to  seven  days 
before  she  is  expected  to  farrow  will  accustom  her  to  the  new  sur- 
roundings and  to  the  presence  of  the  herdsman.  Before  being  placed 
in  the  pen,  she  should  be  thoroughly  washed  with  soap  and  water 
(fig.  9)  and  disinfected  with  a  mild  germicide.  This  may  be  accom- 
plished by  the  use  of  a  pressure  spray  or  of  a  common  sprinkling  can. 

Scrubbing  the  floor  and  walls  of  the  farrowing  pen  with  a  scalding 
lye  solution  and  thoroughly  disinfecting  it  are  highly  recommended. 
Pens  that  are  dry,  airy,  well-lighted,  and  free  from  drafts  result  m 
an  increase  in  the  number  of  pigs  raised. 


1928] 


PORK    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA 


27 


The  bedding  used  should  be  clean  and  free  from  dust.  Straw,  cut 
hay  (not  too  long),  wood  shavings,  and  rice  hulls  are  satisfactory 
materials.  Too  much  bedding  is  to  be  avoided,  as  the  small  pigs  may 
become  entangled  and  crushed  by  the  mother.  Enough  bedding  to 
insure  cleanliness  and  warmth  will  give  the  best  results.  All  bedding 
should  be  removed  at  least  once  a  week  and  replaced  with  clean 
material.    That  which  becomes  soiled  or  wet  should  be  removed  daily. 

Reducing  the  ration  30  to  50  per  cent  at  this  time  will  prove 
beneficial.  The  addition  of  30  per  cent  of  wheat  bran  to  the  ration 
during  the  week  preceding  farrowing  tones  up  the  system,  prevents 
constipation,  and  makes  for  a  normal  parturition. 


^ ..^:  ^ 

^*- ''  — 

W^ 

Fig.  y. — Washing  the  sow's  udder  before  placing  her  in  a  clean 
farrowing  pen. 


The  sow  becomes  restless  as  the  time  for  farrowing  approaches. 
She  will  be  seen  gathering  bedding  and  making  a  nest  for  her  litter. 
The  vagina  usually  becomes  swollen,  and  the  milk  is  found  in  the 
udder  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  before  farrowing.  One  light  feed 
of  bran  mixed  in  the  form  of  a  thin  slop,  together  with  a  supply  of 
fresh,  clean  water,  will  be  sufficient  during  the  twenty-four  hours 
preceding  parturition. 

Sows  that  have  raised  one  or  more  litters  successfully  and  have 
been  handled  properly  during  the  gestation  period  will  ordinarily 
have  little  difficulty  in  farrowing.   Gilts  giving  birth  to  their  first 


28  CALIFORNIA   AGRICULTURAL   EXTENSION    SERVICE  [CiRC.  15 

litter  will  sometimes  have  trouble.  These  demand  the  closest  atten- 
tion. If  continued  labor  seems  of  no  avail,  aid  should  be  given  as 
quickly  as  possible.  The  unskilled  use  of  forceps  is  usually  fatal  to 
the  pig  and  often  results  in  injury  to  the  generative  organs  of  the 
sow.  A  well-greased  hand  and  arm,  clean  and  disinfected,  are 
generally  the  best  instruments.  Pigs  that  are  not  presented  properly 
should  be  forced  back  and  turned  in  such  a  position  as  to  make 
delivery  possible.  If  the  young  gilt  or  mature  sow  is  having  extreme 
difficulty  in  delivering  a  pig  or  litter,  the  services  of  a  competent 
veterinarian  are  desirable. 

The  value  of  watching  the  sows  closely  during  the  farrowing 
season  cannot  be  over-emphasized.  Inspection  every  two  or  three 
hours  will  save  many  pigs,  as  some  in  the  new-born  litters  may  wander 
away,  become  chilled,  and  be  unable  to  obtain  their  first  nourishment. 

The  mucus  should  be  removed  from  the  nose  and  mouth,  and  the 
body  wiped  dry  as  tlie  pigs  are  born.  As  soon  as  they  have  gained  a 
little  strength,  they  should  be  allowed  to  suckle.  Weak  pigs  and 
those  unable  to  nurse  may  be  induced  to  do  so  by  stripping  a  little 
milk  into  the  mouth ;  if  they  can  be  made  to  swallow,  they  will  soon 
gain  strength  and  be  able  to  manage  for  themselves.  If  pigs  become 
chilled,  they  may  generally  be  revived  in  a  warm  box  or  in  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun,  or  by  rubbing  vigorously  between  the  hands.  If  the 
sow  is  nervous  or  irritable  during  parturition,  the  pigs  should  be 
allowed  to  suckle  and  then  be  placed  in  a  warm  farrowing  box  (fig. 
10)  lined  with  straw  and  lightly  covered  to  keep  in  the  heat.  During 
extremely  cold  weather,  warm  bricks  or  a  jug  of  warm  water  placed 
in  the  box  will  add  warmth.  When  farrowing  is  prolonged,  it  is 
considered  good  policy  to  return  the  pigs  to  the  sow  every  one  or  two 
hours  and  allow  them  to  suckle. 

In  case  two  or  three  small,  rather  weak  pigs  are  farrow^ed  in  a 
litter  of  strong  pigs,  the  stronger  ones  may  be  removed  now  and  then 
to  give  the  less  vigorous  ones  a  chance. 

The  afterbirth  should  be  removed  and  buried  or  burned  when  it 
appears.  If  left  in  the  pen,  the  sow  Avill  generally  eat  it.  This,  many 
think,  encourages  the  pig-eating  habit.  A  long-handled  shovel  or 
manure  fork  is  useful  for  removing  afterbirth  from  the  farrowing  pen. 

The  sow  should  be  disturbed  as  little  as  possible  while  farrowing, 
no  one  except  the  attendant  being  allowed  in  the  pen  at  this  time. 
Quite  often  a  pig  will  be  farrowed  apparently  lifeless.  In  such  cases, 
breathing  may  sometimes  be  started  by  removing  the  mucous  covering 
over   the    mouth    and    nose    and    gently    slapping    along    the    side. 


1928] 


PORK    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA 


29 


..... 

■f  'PiPHHHI^ 

I 

g^g 

mm     r  -  ^     -               O^^H^ 

B 

la^H^^^^^^^^H 

f 

■ 

H....... 

Fig.   10. — A  practical   type   of  farrowing  box   in  use   at   tlie  University   of 
California.     This  box  is  26  inches  long,  18  inches  wide,  and  18  inches  deep. 


Fig.  11. — Removing  needle-teeth  from  the  suckling  pi 


30  CALIFORNIA   AGRICULTURAL   EXTENSION    SERVICE  [CiRC.  15 

Occasionally  a  sow  will  farrow  more  pigs  than  she  can  properly 
nourish.  Some  of  these  pigs  should  be  transferred  to  another  sow 
that  has  recently  farrowed  a  small  litter.  When  sows  do  not  provide 
milk  at  farrowing  time,  the  milk  floAv  may  often  be  stimulated  by 
applying  hot  packs  to  the  udder  and  by  vigorous  massage. 

About  a  day  after  farrowing,  the  eight  needle-like  teeth  present 
in  the  upper  and  lower  jaws  of  the  young  pigs  should  be  removed  by 
carefully  cutting  with  wire  snippers,  as  shown  in  figure  11.  These 
teeth,  which  are  also  known  as  wolf  or  black  teeth,  are  of  no  apparent 
value.  If  not  removed,  they  are  likely  to  prove  a  menace  to  the 
health  and  safety  of  the  pigs,  because  biting  each  other  while  nursing 
often  results  in  lacerated  mouths  that  become  infected.  The  pigs  also 
bite  the  sow,  causing  her  to  jump  suddenly,  sometimes  injuring  or 
killing  some  of  the  litter. 

The  practice  of  marking  the  pigs  in  some  way,  with  either  an 
individual  or  litter  number  when  they  are  a  few  days  old  is  recom- 
mended. The  most  convenient  and  satisfactory  method  is  the  ear- 
notch  system  of  identification. 

Pig-Eating  Sows. — Normal  brood  sows,  fed  properly  during  the 
gestation  period,  will  not  eat  their  pigs.  It  is  commonly  believed  that 
the  rations  fed  during  the  last  two  months  of  pregnancy,  if  deficient 
in  protein  and  mineral  matter,  are  contributing  causes  to  this  vice. 
The  practice  of  feeding  tankage  or  meat  meal  after  farrowing  may 
in  some  cases  remedy  the  situation.  Sows  that  have  formed  the  pig- 
eating  habit  should  be  discarded  for  breeding  purposes,  fattened,  and 
marketed. 

Feeding  the  Sow  after  Farrowing. — Sows  should  receive  no  feed 
during  the  first  twenty-four  hours  after  farrowing  and  then  only 
small  amounts  for  the  next  three  or  four  days.  It  is  a  good  rule  to 
feed  one  pound  of  a  suitable  concentrate  mixture,  such  as  rolled 
barley  and  wheat  bran,  equal  parts  by  weight,  on  the  second  day,  two 
pounds  the  third  day,  and  increasing  amounts  daily  until  four  or  five 
pounds  are  being  fed  at  the  end  of  the  first  week.  Under  normal 
conditions,  the  sow  can  be  on  full  feed  in  from  ten  to  fourteen  days 
after  farrowing.  The  attendant  should  constantly  watch  for  any 
digestive  disturbances  that  become  evident  in  the  suckling  pigs  and 
should  regulate  the  sow's  feed  accordingly.  Over-feeding  the  sow, 
constipation,  and  lack  of  exercise  may  cause  scours  in  pigs. 

The  feed  requirements  of  the  sow  suckling  a  litter  are  much  the 
same  as  those  of  the  high-producing  dairy  cow.  Nutrients  are  needed 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  body  and  for  the  production  of  large 


1928] 


PORK   PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA 


31 


quantities  of  milk  for  the  litter.  A  ration  supplying  liberal  amounts 
of  proteins  and  mineral  matter,  particularly  calcium  and  phosphorus, 
will  satisfy  these  demands.  These  materials  may  be  supplied  by 
home-grown  grains,  supplemented  with  such  feeds  as  wheat  middlings 
and  tankage,  which  are  rich  in  protein. 

Proper  feeding  of  the  lactating  sow  is  important.  Over-feeding 
generally  causes  scours  in  pigs,  while  under-feeding  often  results  in 
an  excessive  drain  on  the  system  of  the  sow. 


12. — Sow  and  litter  10  days  of  age,  after  having  been  moved  from 
the  farrowing  house  to  clean  pasture. 


In  from  ten  to  fourteen  days  after  farrowing,  weather  conditions 
permitting,  the  sows  and  pigs  should  be  placed  on  clean  pasture 
(fig.  12).  Forage,  preferably  of  the  leguminous  type,  growing  in 
recently  plowed  lots  is  a  valuable  addition  to  the  ration  because  of 
its  milk-producing  properties,  and  also  its  liberal  supply  of  proteins, 
minerals,  and  vitamins.  Pasture  also  gives  pigs  ample  opportunity 
for  exercise  in  the  sunlight. 

When  sows  and  their  litters  are  being  moved  to  the  pasture,  the 
pigs  should  be  carried  in  a  box,  thus  eliminating  chances  of  picking 
up  eggs  of  intestinal  parasites. 

Tightly  fenced  pastures,  large  enough  to  accommodate  from  two 
to  four  sows  and  their  litters,  are  recommended.  Adequate  shelter 
should  be  provided ;  clean,  warm,  well-bedded  houses  are  essential. 
If  small  pastures  are  not  available,  a  greater  number  of  sows  and 


32  CALIFORNIA   AGRICULTURAL   EXTENSION    SERVICE  [CiRC.  15 

litters  may  be  plaeed  on  a  large  pasture,  provided  the  pigs  are  of 
relatively  uniform  size.  Too  often  sows  with  litters  two  or  three 
weeks  old  are  turned  out  with  sows  whose  pigs  are  ready  to  wean. 
This  usually  results  in  a  large  number  of  small,  unthrifty  pigs.  The 
best  results  will  be  obtained,  however,  by  running  a  few  sows  together. 
More  individual  attention  can  be  given  in  feeding  the  smaller  pigs 
and  they  will  have  a  better  chance  to  grow  and  develop  normally. 

The  feeding  at  this  stage  is  important.  Sows  with  normal-sized 
litters  should  be  on  full  feed.  Even  so,  heavy-milking  sows  will  lose 
from  25  to  40  pounds  during  the  lactation  period.  Sows  that  begin 
to  take  on  flesh  three  or  four  weeks  after  farrowing  should  not  be 
given  all  they  will  eat. 

The  number  of  pounds  for  a  full  feed  varies  with  the  individual 
and  with  the  size  and  number  of  pigs  in  the  litter.  If  a  sow  is  fed 
slightly  less  than  she  will  readily  clean  up  twice  a  day,  she  may  be 
considered  on  full  feed.     The  appetite  is  a  good  guide  in  feeding. 

At  the  United  States  Experiment  Farm,  Beltsville,  Maryland, 
sows  suckling  their  pigs  were  self -fed  a  ration  consisting  of  shelled 
corn,  wheat  middlings,  and  a  mineral  mixture  for  a  period  of  three 
years.  The  results  were  equal  to  and  in  some  cases  better  than  those 
obtained  by  hand-feeding.  This  method,  however,  is  not  the  general 
practice  in  this  state. 

Feeding  the  Suckling  Pigs. — When  the  pigs  are  from  two  to  three 
weeks  old,  they  will  eat  a  little  grain.  A  self-feeder  placed  in  a  small 
inclosure,  known  as  a  'creep,'  should  be  provided  for  the  pigs.  The 
common  farm  grains  will  meet  the  demands  of  the  pigs  at  this  age. 
As  they  grow  older  and  their  consumption  of  grain  increases,  they 
should  have  some  protein  supplement  such  as  skim  milk,  middlings, 
tankage,  or  linseed-oil  meal. 

Skim  milk  fed  with  suitable  concentrates  is  one  of  the  best  feeds 
known  for  young  growing  pigs,  and  should  be  given  if  available.  It  is 
advisable  to  feed  small  amounts  at  first,  care  being  taken  to  increase 
the  amount  gradually,  never  to  put  out  more  than  they  will  clean  up. 

Weaning  the  Pigs. — Where  the  system  of  farrowing  two  litters  a 
year  is  practiced,  as  it  is  in  most  sections,  pigs  are  weaned  at  from 
seven  to  nine  weeks  of  age.  At  this  time  the  pigs  will  be  consuming 
considerable  quantities  of  feed  daily. 

About  a  week  before  weaning,  the  sow  should  have  her  ration 
gradually  reduced,  thus  causing  a  decrease  in  the  flow  of  milk  and 
indirectly  helping  to  eliminate  the  possibility  of  caked  or  inflamed 
udders. 


li^28]  PORK    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA  33 

The  best  practice  is  to  remove  the  sows  from  the  pigs,  leaving  the 
latter  on  the  same  pasture  which  they  have  occupied  during  the 
suckling  period. 

If  the  sow 's  udder  becomes  hard  or  caked  a  day  or  so  after  weaning, 
place  her  with  the  pigs  again  and  allow  them  to  suckle.  She  should 
be  removed  when  they  have  finished.  This  procedure  should  not  be 
necessary  more  than  once. 

If  the  pigs  are  receiving  skim  milk  at  weaning  time,  it  should  be 
gradually  increased,  never  allowing  more  than  they  will  readily  clean 
up  in  a  short  time. 

The  grain  ration  should  not  be  changed  at  this  time.  However,  if 
a  change  in  feed  is  necessary,  it  should  not  be  sudden,  but  extended 
over  a  period  of  from  three  to  five  days.  Any  sudden  change  in  feed 
is  likely  to  be  harmful,  and  in  some  cases  fatal,  to  pigs  at  any  age. 

Feeding  the  Sow  after  Weamng. — After  weaning,  the  sow  should 
be  placed  in  a  separate  pasture  and  fed  lightly  until  the  secretion 
of  milk  ceases.  The  feed  is  then  increased,  the  amount  necessary 
depending  upon  the  condition  of  the  sow.  Feeding  heavily  so  that 
she  will  gain  from  one-half  to  one  pound  a  day  at  breeding  time  is 
recommended. 

THE  YOUNG  PIGS 

After  Weamng. — Soon  after  the  pigs  are  weaned,  the  gilts  and 
boars  that  are  to  be  saved  for  breeding  stock  should  be  selected  and 
separated  from  those  to  be  fattened.  A  system  of  identification  is 
valuable  in  making  the  selections.  As  a  rule,  only  gilts  and  boars 
out  of  the  best  sows  should  be  retained.  When  a  large  number  of 
hogs  are  raised,  this  is  difficult  unless  the  practice  of  marking  the 
litters  or  individual  pigs  is  being  followed. 

The  question  of  feeding  and  managing  the  pigs  that  are  to  be 
fattened  for  market  is  discussed  on  pages  34-40. 

Feeding  the  Orphan  Pig. — Evvard  and  Glatfelter,^^  of  the  Iowa 
station,  recommend,  after  five  years  of  experimentation,  a  ration  of 
cow 's  whole  milk,  about  one  quart  for  each  pig,  plus  a  ration  of  mixed 
shelled  corn  or  rolled  barley  and  tankage,  which  can  be  self -fed.  The 
addition  of  green  alfalfa  or  alfalfa  leaves  is  also  helpful.  For  best 
results,  the  young  pig  should  be  fed  five  or  six  times  daily  for  a  time, 
this  number  gradually  being  cut  to  three. 


]fi  Evvard,  John  M.,  and  G.  B.  Glatfelter.     Saving  the  orphan  pigs.     Iowa 
Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  80:1-11.      1922. 


34  ■     CALIFORNIA    AGRICULTURAL   EXTENSION    SERVICE  [CiRC.  15 

Gilts  and  Boars  Retained  for  Breeding  Purposes. — The  selection,'^ 
feeding,  and  care  of  the  gilts  retained  for  breeding  purposes  is 
important,  because  the  future  sow  herd  is  dependent  upon  the  gilts 
selected  from  each  crop  of  pigs.  Since  it  is  desirable  to  obtain  as 
much  growth  as  possible,  the  gilts  should  be  placed  in  a  pasture. 
Hand  feeding  will,  in  most  cases,  prove  the  most  successful,  especially 
after  a  weight  of  about  100  pounds  is  reached.  The  ration  should  be 
of  a  type  to  promote  growth  rather  than  fat  production.  Liberal 
amounts  of  proteins  and  minerals  should  be  provided. 

Skim  milk  or  buttermilk  fed  at  the  rate  of  three  parts  to  one  part 
of  grain  concentrates,  by  weight,  is  a  satisfactory  combination,  with 
alfalfa  pasture  to  promote  proper  growth  and  development  in  the 
young  animal.  The  guide  to  be  followed  by  the  feeder  is  the  pro- 
duction of  thrifty  growth  rather  than  fat.  The  results  obtained 
depend  largely  upon  the  common  sense  and  judgment  of  the  man 
doing  the  feeding. 

The  young  boars  saved  for  breeding  purposes  should  be  separated 
from  the  gilts  soon  after  weaning.  Their  feeding  and  management 
are  similar  to  those  recommended  for  the  developing  gilt. 


FATTENING   PIGS    FOR    MARKET 

The  most  common  methods  of  fattening  pigs  for  market  are : 
{a)  full  feeding  on  alfalfa  or  other  forage;  {]))  feeding  a  limited 
ration  on  forage,  (c)  full  feeding  in  dry  lot;  {d)  hogging  down  crops; 
{e)  using  barley  and  rice  stubble,  orchard  and  vineyard  wastes. 

The  two  methods  in  most  general  use  in  the  state  are  full  feeding 
of  grain  on  alfalfa  pasture  or  other  forage  from  weaning  time  until 
the  desired  market  weight  is  attained,  and  feeding  a  restricted  or 
medium  grain  ration  with  available  forage  or  pasture  and  finishing 
in  dry  lot. 

Fidl  Feeding  on  Forage. — The  first  method  is  the  quicker  way  to 
attain  market  weight;  the  feasibility  and  economy  of  this  method, 
however,  are  dependent  upon  local  conditions. 

Thompson  and  Voorhies^'  have  reported  several  experiments  where 
various  rations  were  fed  on  alfalfa  pasture.  Some  of  these  data  are 
presented  in  table  3. 

Other  data  obtained  by  Hughes^  ^  at  this  station,  where  various 
rations  were  fed  with  alfalfa  pasture,  are  presented  in  table  4. 

17  Thompson,  J.  I.,  and  Edwin  C.  Voorhies.  Hog  feeding  experiments.  Cali- 
fornia Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  342:373-396.     1922. 

18  Hughes,  E.  H.  The  feeding  value  of  raisins  and  dairy  by-products  for 
growing  and  fattening  swine.     California  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  440:1-12.     1927. 


1928] 


PORK    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA 


35 


TABLE  3 

Full  Feeding  on  Alfalfa  Pasture 


Ration 

Average 
initial 
weight 

Average 
daily 
gain 

Feed  consumed  for 
100  pounds  of  gain 

Rolled  barley,  self-fed 

pounds 

89.90 

pounds 

1.27 

pounds 

434  barley 

Rolled  barlej^  and  tankage,  .self-fed 

89.73 

1.34 

421  barley 
18  tankage 

Rolled  barley  and  cocoanut  meal... 

88.0 

1.04 

299  barley 

111  coconut  meal 

Rolled  barley  and  wheat  middlings 

103.3 

1.27 

360  barley 

110  wheat  middlings 

Ground  milo  and  tankage,  self-fed... 

102.8 

1.54 

400  ground  milo 
10  tankage 

TABLE  4 
Full  Feeding  on  Alfalfa  Pasture 


Ration 

Average 
initial 
weight 

Average 
daily 
gain 

Feed  consumed  for 
100  pounds  of  gain 

Rolled  barley,  15  parts  \    By  weight, 

„       ,              ^     "      ,                    (     mixed  and 

lankage,  1  part J      self-fed. 

pounds 

82.95 

pounds 

1.66 

pounds 

361.11  barley 
24.07  tankage 

Rolled  barley,  5  parts..  | 

Raisins ,  5  parts 1    By  weight 

_. .        ,              ^          ,                 ;     mixed  and 

Rice  bran,  5  parts self-fed. 

Tankage,  1  part J 

82.28 

1.76 

136.34  barley 
136.34  raisins 
136.34  rice  bran 
27.27  tankage 

Raisins,  7\4  oarts                t^        ■  ux 

81.39 

1.48 

220  31  raisins 

xvdioinD ,  1  /I  pa,i  LD -gy  weight, 

Rice  bran,  IVo  parts \    mixed  and 

r,^      ,              ,           ^                           self-fed. 

Tankage,  1  part 

220.31  rice  bran 
29.38  tankage 

The  results  obtained  from  pigs  fed  barley  and  tankage  and  from 
those  fed  ground  milo  and  tankage  indicate  relatively  small  consump- 
tion of  tankage  if  good  alfalfa  is  available. 

The  group  fed  rolled  barley  and  tankage  on  pasture  (fig.  13)  did 
not  gain  so  rapidly  as  those  receiving  barley,  raisins,  rice  bran,  and 
tankage ;  they  did,  however,  produce  gains  on  less  feed  than  either 
of  the  other  groups.     This  would  be  expected,  because  in  a  given 


36  CALIFORNIA   AGRICULTURAL   EXTENSION    SERVICE  [CiRC.  15 

amount  of  barley  there  are  more  total  digestible  nutrients  than  in 
raisins  or  rice  bran. 

Restricted  Ration  on  Forage. — In  following  the  second  plan,  that 
of  feeding  a  restricted  grain  ration  on  pasture,  it  is  considered  good 
practice  to  feed  a  concentrate  ration  of  one  or  two  pounds  for  each 
100  pounds  of  live  weight.  Waste  from  vegetable  gardens,  vineyards, 
and  orchards  may  be  utilized  under  this  scheme. 

During  the  summer  and  fall  of  1926,  thirtj^-one  pigs  were  fed 
on  an  acre  of  alfalfa  pasture  at  this  station.  The  pasture  was  divided 
into  two  half -acre  lots,  the  pigs  being  pastured  in  one  while  the  other 
was  being  irrigated.  They  were  fed  a  limited  ration  of  one  part  of 
rolled  barley  to  three  parts  of  skim  milk  by  weight.  It  was  planned 
that  they  should  be  fed  such  a  quantity  of  barley  and  skim  milk  that 
they  would  consume  a  maximum  quantity  of  alfalfa  and  yet  gain  at 
the  rate  of  about  one  pound  per  head  daily.  The  pigs  fed  from  June 
until  November  gained  0.92  pounds  per  head  daily  and  required  275 
pounds  of  barley  and  822  pounds  of  skim  milk  for  100  pounds  of  gain. 

hi  Dry  Lot.- — Where  only  a  limited  amount  of  forage  is  available, 
pigs  may  be  fattened  in  dry  lot,  placing  them  in  the  fattening  pen 
soon  after  w^eaning,  when  they  weigh  from  45  to  75  pounds  each. 
Pigs  fattened  in  dry  lot  require  more  feeds  rich  in  protein  than 
those  fattened  on  forage.  Where  pigs  are  fattened  in  this  manner, 
occasional  feeding  of  roots,  tubers,  pumpkins,  or  alfalfa  hay  adds 
nutrients,  succulence,  and  variety  to  the  ration. 

Almost  all  of  the  demands  of  the  young  pig  are  for  growth ;  there- 
fore, rations  rich  in  muscle  and  bone-building  materials  are  necessary, 
in  addition  to  the  carbohydrates  or  energy-producing  elements.  Since 
the  common  farm-grown  grains  do  not  supply  these  materials  in 
sufficient  quantities  for  rapid  growth,  they  must  be  supplemented 
with  protein-rich  feeds,  such  as  the  dairy  by-products,  tankage,  fish 
meal,  linseed-oil  meal,  and  wheat  middlings. 

Protein-rich  pasture  for  pigs  during  the  growing  period  cannot 
be  recommended  too  highly.  It  is  an  excellent  and  economical  source 
of  protein,  mineral  matter,  particularly  calcium,  phosphorus,  and 
iodine,  and  vitamins.  Pigs  on  pasture  seem  more  healthy  and  thrifty 
than  those  in  small,  cramped  quarters.  Pigs  fed  on  legume  pasture 
need  less  protein-rich  supplements  than  those  in  dry  lot.  As  they 
become  older  and  heavier  and  the  aim  is  one  of  fat  production  rather 
than  growth,  the  amount  of  protein  supplements  in  the  ration  may 
be  gradually  reduced,  rations  containing  larger  proportions  of 
carbonaceous  feeds  being  used. 


1928] 


PORK    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA 


37 


It  is  not  intended  to  present  in  this  circular  all  the  available 
information  on  dry-lot  feeding,  but  rather  to  give  the  average  results 
of  experimentation  with  the  more  common  rations  used.  Pigs  being 
fattened  in  dry  lot  should  have  plenty  of  shade  and  clean  water  and 
a  suitable  mineral  mixture.     Their  quarters  should  be  kept  clean. 

Table  5  is  a  summary  of  trials  of  pigs  fattened  in  dry  lot. 

The  rapid  gains  made  by  the  fattening  pigs  and  the  reduction  of 
the  amount  of  feed  necessary  for  100  pounds  of  gain  show  clearly 
the  advantages  of  adding  a  protein  supplement  to  barley  and  to  corn. 


Fig.  13. — Fattening  pigs  fed  a  ration  of  rolled  bailey  and  tankage 
self-fed  in  separate  feeders,  and  alfalfa  pasture. 

Excellent  and  economical  gains  were  made  by  pigs  fed  barley  and 
tankage  or  barley  and  skim  milk.  A  ration  of  ground  milo  and  skim 
milk  produced  about  the  same  results  as  rolled  barley  and  skim  milk. 

The  average  results  indicate  that  the  feeding  of  such  rations  as 
barley  and  tankage  or  barley  and  skim  milk  produces  about  the  same 
results  as  rations  of  corn  and  tankage  or  corn  and  skim  milk. 

Hogging  Doivn  Crops. — Experiments  conducted  in  the  Corn  Belt 
states  have  demonstrated  that  hogs  do  as  well  and  often  better  when 
allowed  to  harvest  their  own  corn  than  when  it  is  hauled  to  them  in 
the  feed  lot.  Experience  has  proved  that  allowing  the  pigs  a  supple- 
ment, either  in  the  form  of  some  nitrogenous  concentrate  such  as 
tankage  or  fish  meal  or  in  the  form  of  some  legume  forage  such  as 
alfalfa  pasture,  produces  more  rapid  and  economical  gains  than  when 
no  supplement  is  provided. 


38 


CALIFORNIA    AGRICULTURAL    EXTENSION    SERVICE 


[CiRC.  15 


TABLE  5 
Fattening  Pigs  in  Dry  Lot 


Ration 

Average 
initial 
weight 

Average 
daily 
gain 

Feed  consumed  for 
100  pounds  of  gain 

Rolled  barley,  self-fed  .               .    . 

pounds 

73.93 

pounds 

0.73 

pounds 

546  44  barlev 

(Average  of  3  trials) 

Rolled  barley \     Self-fed. 

„,      ,                                             /(Average  of  5 

lankage J       trials.) 

86.27 

1.54 

420.00  barley 
41 .  73  tankage 

Rolled  barley 

87.50 

0.93 

465.00  barley 

Alfalfa  hay  (in  racks) 

38. 00  alfalfa  hay 

Rolled  barlev 1  t^      i       , 

56.75 

1.07 

161 .  033  barley 

-^                           Equal  parts, 

Raisins }    mixed  and 

,^.        ,                                                 self-fed. 

Rice  bran J 

Tankage,  self-fed  in  separate  feeder 

161.033  raisins 
161.033  rice  bran 
30.67  tankage 

Rolled  barlev                        c  i^  f  i 

65.25 

1.24 

252. 17  barley 

Raisins >  (Average  of  2 

Tankage j 

166.37  raisins 
75.31  tankage* 

Rolled  barley,  1  part.)   _       .  , 

oi  •            Ml      o          :               {    By  weight. 

Skim  milk,  3  parts J 

54.33 

1.61 

280.48  barley 
841.45  skim  milk 

Rolled  barley,  1  part.  .1    _        .  , 

Airu          1           /                              By  weight. 

Whey,  1  part J 

53.53 

1.40 

331.40  barley 
994. 19  whey 

Rolled  barley,  1  part....] 

Raisins,  1  part \   By  weight. 

54.53 

1.47 

156.08  barley 
156.08  raisins 

Skim  milk,  6  parts J 

936. 46  skim  milk 

Rolled  barley,  1  part....] 

Raisins,  1  part \  By  weight. 

54.07 

1.04 

195.  24  barley 
195.  24  raisins 

Whey,  6  parts J 

1171.42  whey 

Ground  milo 

Skim  milk 

73.10 

1.55 

289.00  milo 
896.00  skim  milk 

Ground  milo 

Whey 

72.80 

1.32 

349.00  milo 
1346.00  whey 

Rolled  barley. .  ]     g^i^.^^^  -^  ^^^^^^^^ 

Rice  polish }                feeders. 

„      ,                                 (Averageof  2  trials.) 

lankage J 

109.70 

1.88 

269.86  barley 
121.14  rice  polish 
25.39  tankage 

*  In  one  trial  a  45-per-cent-protein  tankage  was  fed,  which  partially  accounts  for  the  amount  of 
tankage  consumed. 


1928] 


PORK    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA 


39 


TABLE  5— (Continued) 


Ration 

Average 
initial 
weight 

Average 
daily 
gain 

Feed  consumed  for 
100  pounds  of  gain 

Rolled  barley \  Equal  parts 

pounds 

57.00 

pounds 

1.41 

pounds 

183. 14  barley 

Rice  polish /      ««if-^«d.   ' 

Tankage,  self-fed  in  separate  feeder 

183. 14  rice  polish 
33.27  tankage 

Rolled  barley....]      Self-fed  in  separate 
Rice  bran >                feeders. 

97.76 

1.81 

323.35  barley 
89.72  rice  bran 

Tankage                       (Average  of  2  trials.) 

25.21  tankage 

Rolled  barlev 1    Eoual  narts 

56.10 

1.30 

202.095  barlev 

Rice  bran /      ^^l^-^^^- 

Tankage,  self-fed  in  separate  feeder 

202.095  rice  bran 
53.60  tankage 

Rough  rice,  finely  ground  \  Self-fed  in 

„      °                                                f     separate 

Tankage J      feeders. 

(Average  of  two  trials) 

80.45 

1.39 

461 .  07  rice 
55.84  tankage 

Corn  alonef 

136.70 

1.12 

545.90  corn 

Cornt 

Tankage 

138.70 

1.74 

380.20  corn 
40.20  tankage 

Cornt 

Skim  milk 

108.38 

1.66 

302.07  corn 
799.40  skim  milk 

tAverage  of  several  experiments  reported  in:    Smith,  W.  W.  Pork  Production,  pp.  241  and  256. 
The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York.    1920. 

Note. — All  the  information  presented  in  this  table  is  found  in  California  Agr. 
Exp.  Sta.  Buls.  342,  420,  and  440,  except  that  concerning  corn. 

While  there  is  no  experimental  evidence  concerning  the  hogging- 
down  of  barley,  it  is  practiced  in  some  localities.  Producers  have 
found  that  relatively  small  areas  should  be  hogged  down  at  one  time, 
that  it  is  necessary  to  have  water  close  at  hand,  and  that  where  natural 
shade  is  lacking  temporary  shade  must  be  supplied. 

Hogs  on  Stuhhle  Fields. — The  gleaning  of  barley,  wheat,  and  rice- 
stubble  fields  is  an  important  factor  in  economical  pork  production 
in  this  state.  Two  systems  of  management  are  practiced.  The  more 
common  is  to  turn  sows  and  pigs  into  the  stubble  fields  and  keep  them 
there  until  they  are  fat  or  until  the  fields  have  been  cleaned.  Water 
and  shade  are  provided,  but  no  effort  is  made  to  provide  additional 
protein,  either  in  the  form  of  pasture  or  commercial  supplement. 
Some  producers,  however,  are  allowing  either  sows,  or  sows  with  pigs. 


40  CALIFORNIA    AGRICULTURAL   EXTENSION    SERVICE  [CiRC.  15 

the  run  of  barley  or  rice-stubble  and,  in  addition,  are  providing 
alfalfa  pasture  and  in  some  cases,  when  pasture  is  not  to  be  had,  are 
supplying  tankage  in  a  self-feeder.  Pigs  over  75  pounds  in  weight 
do  better  on  stubble  than  lighter  pigs.  A  clean,  dry  bed  should  be 
provided  in  the  rice-stubble  fields. 

MARKETING 

The  most  desirable  market  weight  from  the  standpoint  of  both  the 
producer  and  the  consumer  is  from  175  to  200  pounds. 

Hogs  are  sold  to  local  butchers,  shipped  directly  to  the  packers, 
marketed  through  cooperative  farm-bureau  associations,  or  consigned 
to  commission  firms  to  be  sold  at  union  stock  yards.  The  cooperative 
farm-bureau  hog-auction  association  of  the  lower  San  Joaquin  Valley 
has  been  a  very  successful  one. 

It  is  good  business  to  produce  the  kind  of  hogs  the  public  demands 
and  to  sell  them  to  the  highest  bidder,  whether  he  be  the  local  butcher 
or  some  other  agency. 

SANITATION   AND   CONTROL  OF   PARASITES 

Clean  premises  and  clean,  well-lighted,  ventilated  barns  and  sheds 
are  good  insurance  against  various  types  of  infection.  Plowing  the 
lots  close  to  the  barn  once  or  twice  a  year  and  seeding  them  to 
some  annual  crop  such  as  barley  and  rape,  keeping  the  manure  away 
from  the  barns  and  lots,  scattering  air-slacked  lime  in  the  pens  and 
on  the  feeding  floors  occasionally,  and  keeping  the  troughs  and  feed- 
ing utensils  clean,  all  are  factors  in  keeping  down  infection  and  in 
providing  wholesome  surroundings  for  the  growing  pigs. 

Control  of  the  Bound  Worm. — The  McLean  County  System  has 
produced  some  excellent  results  in  preventing  round-worm  infestation. 
Before  the  farrowing  season  begins,  the  farrowing  house  and  par- 
ticularly the  walls,  partitions,  and  floor  of  the  farrowing  pens  are 
thoroughly  washed  and  scrubbed  with  scalding  water  and  lye.  The 
pen  is  then  thoroughly  disinfected  with  any  standard  disinfectant, 
and  fresh,  clean  straw  is  put  in. 

Before  the  sows  that  are  due  to  farrow  are  put  into  the  pens,  they 
are  washed  thoroughly,  particularly  the  udder  and  underline,  as  a 
protection  against  carrying  round-worm  eggs  into  the  clean  pen.  The 
sow  is  kept  in  the  pen  until  she  has  farrowed  and  her  pigs  are  strong 
enough  to  be  removed  from  the  barn  to  a  clean,  non-infested  pasture. 


1928] 


PORK    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA 


41 


Control  of  Lice. — Where  hog  wallows  are  a  part  of  the  equipment, 
the  control  of  lice  is  simple.  Keeping  a  film  of  about  one-half  inch  of 
crude  or  any  other  cheap  oil  on  the  water  to  which  the  sows  and  pigs 
have  access  is  a  very  effective  measure.  If  there  are  no  wallows,  it  is 
necessary  to  dip  the  whole  herd  in  a  dipping  vat  if  lice  are  found. 
To  the  w^ater  in  the  dipping  vat  should  be  added  crude  oil  in  such 
amounts  that  each  animal  receives  a  thin  covering  of  oil.  The  water 
should  be  slightly  warm  if  it  is  found  necessary  to  dip  in  the  late  fall, 
winter,  or  early  spring. 

Another  system  for  oiling  pigs  is  to  crowd  them  into  a  small  area 
and  spray  them  with  oil,  using  a  power  or  hand  spray  outfit  or,  if  the 
number  of  hogs  to  be  sprayed  is  small,  an  ordinary  garden  sprinkling 
can.  Pigs  should  be  dipped  or  sprayed  a  second  time  in  from  ten  days 
to  two  weeks  to  remove  the  lice  that  have  hatched  in  the  meantime. 


MISCELLANEOUS:    RECORDS   AND    METHODS   OF    IDENTIFICATION, 
CASTRATION,    RINGING,    GESTATION   TABLE 

Records  and  MetJiods  of  Identification. — The  keeping  of  records 
is  essential  for  the  proper  management  of  any  herd.  A  record  of  the 
breeding  date,  date  of  farrow,  the  number  and  sex  of  pigs  farrowed, 
and  the  number  and  sex  of  pigs  raised  is  of  vital  importance  to  the 
producer  raising  purebred  hogs  (fig.  14). 


BREEDING  RECORD 

^nw. 

Date  of 

MEMORANDUM   OF   PRODUCE.         (For preceding Utt.r. .ee page , 

"' 

•b.  .bo.,  lib.  tb.  utubi  iM  o( '"'"";;  j'.°.V^t,^'j>'j',|^°,'fj;'^j^p;p»',^^''^*;j  '5,;5V,'.";im  J^S  Im"'  "  '"*  "*"  '"°* '" '"'  '"'*'  ""''*' " 

N, 

S.I. 

Nu>.u<!  NoBber,  1(  B««rt«l. 

"sL"/"." 

nEMABKS-gbowln,  .fa.tb.r  f.I.lo<Kl  la  U>.  hni,  or  when  ud  to  whon.  Mid. 

fi,„n,..     B„^, 

12 
IS 
14 
J5 

D«t«<>r»er,l<«.           11           DUa      h«     D 

"*'• 

~. 

"*""■ 

"'■ 

'"^ 

— 

TBB  ABOVE  SOW  WAS 

rarrou»a 

.«« 

— 

Jfam 

*«rf*r 

P  n 

— 

aom  U  bT^'w.* 

s 

'S 

His'^r 

y^ 

Publl.h.a  by 

J.  III. 

(For  next  litter,  see  page....) 

Fig.  14. — One  type  of  breeding  and  farrowing  record. 

A  system  of  identification  for  the  litter,  or  preferably  for  each 
individual  pig,  is  almost  indispensable.  The  ear-notching  system  is 
the  one  most  commonly  used  and  is  recommended,  as  the  pigs  may  be 


42  CALIFORNIA   AGRICULTURAL   EXTENSION    SERVICE  [CiRC.  15 

marked  without  injury  soon  after  birth,  thus  reducing  the  possibility 
of  mistaken  identity.  The  producer  of  purebreds  should  be  thoroughly 
conversant  with  breed  association  rules.  Blank  forms  and  information 
may  be  secured  from  the  secretary  of  the  breed  association.  A  simple 
system  of  bookkeeping  is  of  value  in  placing  any  business  on  a  sound 
basis. 

Information  on  the  breeding  operations  is  important  in  the  grade 
herd.  A  record  of  the  breeding  date,  the  boar  used,  the  farrowing 
date,  the  number  of  pigs  farrowed  and  raised,  is  valuable,  and  a 
system  of  litter  identification  is  essential.  Here  again,  the  ear-notch 
method  is  in  common  use.  It  is  important  to  know  the  number  of 
pigs  raised  by  each  sow,  so  that  one  proving  unproductive  may  be 
recognized  and  placed  in  the  fattening  pen.  The  litter  identification 
also  affords  an  opportunity  to  select  breeding  stock  of  known 
parentage. 

Metal  tags  bearing  a  number  are  sometimes  inserted  in  the  ear  as 
a  means  of  identification.  These  are  placed  close  to  the  head  to  prevent 
tearing  out.  Even  with  this  precaution,  however,  they  are  often  lost. 
A  tag  placed  in  each  ear  will,  in  a  measure,  overcome  this  difficulty, 
and  if  one  tag  is  lost  it  should  be  replaced  immediately  by  another. 
As  tags  are  not  satisfactory  for  small  pigs,  some  other  means  of 
identification  must  be  employed  until  the  pigs  are  large  enough  for 
the  tags  to  be  inserted.  The  tag  system  of  marking  is  not  recom- 
mended because  it  is  difficult  to  read  the  numbers  and  the  tags  are 
too  often  lost. 

The  system  of  ear  notching  is  the  most  common  method  of  marking 
little  pigs  or  mature  hogs.  Pigs  a  day  or  two  old  may  be  marked,  the 
notches  being  retained  throughout  life.  Each  notch  should  be  large 
enough  to  facilitate  ease  in  reading,  yet  not  too  large  to  disfigure  the 
ear.    The  system  shown  in  figure  16  is  in  use  at  the  California  station. 

The  position  of  the  notch  or  notches  in  the  ear  determines  the 
number  of  the  pig.  A  notch  placed  in  the  low^er  side  of  the  left  ear, 
close  to  the  head,  is  No.  1 ;  in  the  lower  side,  midway  between  the  tip 
and  the  head,  is  No.  2 ;  in  the  lower  side,  close  to  the  tip,  is  No.  3 ; 
and  so  on  up  to  No.  5. 

By  placing  two  notches  in  the  ear  and  adding  together  the  figures 
for  which  they  stand,  the  numbers  6,  7,  8,  and  9  can  be  obtained.  For 
instance,  if  a  notch  were  placed  in  the  upper  side  of  the  left  ear,  close 
to  the  tip,  and  one  in  the  lower  side,  midway  between  the  tip  and 
the  head,  the  number  would  total  4  plus  2,  or  6.  To  make  the  number 
7,  notches  in  the  positions  of  5  and  2  should  be  used,  as  4  and  3  both 
occupy  positions  at  the  tip  of  the  ear,  and  ears  so  notched  tear  easily. 


1928] 


PORK    PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA 


43 


Fig.  15. — An  effective  means  of  identification:   ear  notching  the 
suckling  pig. 


30  ^  ^  /^^  V-3 


ZO 


P°':^i 


2 

1 


Fig.  16. — One  method  of  ear  notching. 


44  CALIFORNIA   AGRICULTURAL   EXTENSION    SERVICE  [CiRC.  15 

The  corresponding  five  notches  on  the  right  ear,  starting  on  the 
lower  side  and  going  around,  represent  10,  20,  30,  40,  and  50  respec- 
tively. By  placing  two  notches  in  the  right  ear  and  adding  together 
the  figures  they  represent,  the  numbers  60,  70,  80,  and  90  are  obtained. 

Suppose,  for  example,  a  pig  is  to  be  numbered  98.  This  would  be 
done  by  placing  a  notch  in  the  upper  side,  near  the  tip  (40)  and  a 
notch  in  the  upper  side,  midway  between  the  tip  and  the  head  (50), 
in  the  right  ear;  a  notch  in  the  upper  side  of  the  left  ear,  midway 
between  the  tip  and  the  head  (5),  and  in  the  lower  side,  close  to  the 
tip  (3),  would  total  (50  plus  40)  90,  on  the  right  ear,  and  (5  plus  3) 
8,  on  the  left  ear. 

In  grade  herds,  each  pig  in  a  litter  may  be  given  the  same  number ; 
in  purebred  herds  each  pig  should  have  an  individual  number. 

Castration. — Castration  of  small  pigs  can  be  performed  with 
efficiency  and  without  much  danger  if  proper  precautions  are  taken. 

The  best  time  to  castrate  is  from  six  to  eight  weeks  of  age,  while 
the  pigs  are  still  suckling.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  give  no  feed  except 
the  mother's  milk  the  day  before  and  the  day  after  castration.  The 
operation  performed  at  this  age  does  not  materially  retard  growth, 
as  the  shock  to  the  pig  is  almost  negligible.  Moreover,  a  pig  of  this 
size  is  small  enough  to  be  handled  easily,  making  the  operation  simple. 
If  the  pigs  are  castrated  with  clean,  disinfected  hands,  and  knife,  and 
if  the  incisions  are  made  large  enough  to  insure  good  drainage,  there 
is  less  danger  from  infection.  The  sows  and  pigs  should  be  placed  in 
clean  pastures  or  in  clean  lots  after  castration  so  that  the  possibility 
of  infection  will  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

Ringing. — Rooting  is  a  habit  practiced  by  most  hogs.  The  most 
common  method  of  prevention  is  to  place  a  small  ring  in  the  cartilage 
at  the  end  of  the  snout.  This  can  be  accomplished  by  one  man  holding 
the  small  pig  and  another  man  inserting  the  ring  with  the  ringer. 
Older  and  larger  hogs  can  be  snubbed  to  a  post  by  the  use  of  a  small 
rope  attached  to  the  upper  jaw,  the  ring  being  inserted  as  in  the  case 
of  smaller  pigs.  Rings  and  a  ringer  can  be  purchased  at  most  hard- 
ware stores.  The  practice  of  cutting  the  snout  to  prevent  rooting  is 
not  a  good  one. 

Gestation  Table. — Table  6  is  figured  on  a  gestation  period  of  114 
days,  figuring  in  the  breeding  and  farrowing  dates.  The  gestation 
period  of  sows  varies  somewhat,  114  days  being  an  average.  To  be 
safe,  it  is  always  good  practice  to  put  the  sow  in  the  farrowing  pen 
a  few  days  before  she  is  due  to  farrow. 


1928] 


PORK   PRODUCTION    IN    CALIFORNIA 


45 


TABLE  6 
Gestation  Table 


Breeding 

Farrowing 

Breeding 

Farrowing 

Breeding 

Farrowing 

date 

date 

date 

date 

date 

date 

Jan.      1 

Apr.  24 

May     6 

Aug.   27 

Sept.    8 

Dec.  30 

Jan.      6 

Apr.  29 

May   11 

Sept.    1 

Sept.  13 

Jan.      4 

Jan.    11 

May    4 

May  16 

Sept.    6 

Sept.  18 

Jan.      9 

Jan.    16 

May    9 

May  21 

Sept.  11 

Sept.  23 

Jan.    14 

Jan.    21 

May  14 

May  26 

Sept.  16 

Sept.  28 

Jan.    19 

Jan.    26 

May  19 

May  31 

Sept.  21 

Oct.     3 

Jan.    24 

Jan.    31 

May  24 

June     5 

Sept.  26 

Oct.     8 

Jan.    29 

Feb.     5 

May  29 

June    10 

Oct.      1 

Oct.    13 

Feb.     3 

Feb.  10 

June    3 

June    15 

Oct.     6 

Oct.    18 

Feb.     8 

Feb.  15 

June    8 

June   20 

Oct.    11 

Oct.    23 

Feb.  13 

Feb.  20 

June  13 

June   25 

Oct.    16 

Oct.    28 

Feb.  18 

Feb.  25 

June  18 

June   30 

Oct.    21 

Nov.    2 

Feb.  23 

Mar.    2 

June  23 

July      5 

Oct.    26 

Nov.    7 

Feb.  28 

Mar.    7 

June  28 

July    10 

Oct.    31 

Nov.  12 

Mar.    5 

Mar.  12 

July    3 

July    15 

Nov.    5 

Nov.  17 

Mar.  10 

Mar.  17 

July    8 

July    20 

Nov.  10 

Nov.  22 

Mar.  15 

Mar.  22 

July  13 

July    25 

Nov.  15 

Nov.  27 

Mar.  20 

Mar.  27 

July  18 

July    30 

Nov.  20 

Dec.     2 

Mar.  25 

Apr.     1 

July  23 

Aug.     4 

Nov.  25 

Dec.     7 

Mar.  30 

Apr.     6 

July  28 

Aug.     9 

Nov.  30 

Dec.  12 

Apr.     4 

Apr.   11 

Aug.    2 

Aug.   14 

Dec.     5 

Dec.   17 

Apr.     9 

Apr.   16 

Aug.    7 

Aug.   19 

Dec.   10 

Dec.  22 

Apr.   14 

Apr.  21 

Aug.  12 

Aug.  24 

Dec.   15 

Dec.  27 

Apr.   19 

Apr.  26 
May     1 

Aug.  17 
Aug.  22 

Aug.  29 
Sept.    3 

Dec.  20 

Dec.  25 

PUBLICATIONS   AVAILABLE   FOR  FREE  DISTRIBUTION 


No. 

253.  Irrigation  and  Soil  Conditions  in  th« 
Sierra   Nevada   Foothills,   California. 

262.  Citrus   Diseases   of   Florida   and   Cuba 

Compared   with   those   of   California. 

263.  Size  Grades  for  Ripe  Olives. 

268.   Growing  and  Grafting  Olive  Seedlings. 

273.  -Preliminary  Report  on  Kearney  Vine- 
yard Experimental  Drain,  Fresno 
County,    California. 

276.  The  Pomegranate. 

277.  Sudan   Grass. 

278.  Grain    Sorghums. 

279.  Irrigation   of  Rice  in   California. 
283.  The  Olive  Insects  of  California. 
294.  Bean   Culture  in   California. 

304.  A  Study  of  the  Effects  of  Freezes  on 

Citrus    in    California. 
310.  Plum    Pollination. 
312.  Mariout   Barley. 
813,  Pruning      Young      Deciduous      Fruit 

Trees, 
319,  Caprifigs    and   Caprification, 

324,  Storage  of   Perishable  Fruit  at  Freez- 

ing Temperatures. 

325.  Rice     Irrigation     Measurements     and 

Experiments    in    Sacramento   Valley, 

1914-1919. 
328.  Prune   Growing   in   California. 
331.   Phylloxera-Resistant    Stocks. 
335.   Cocoanut   Meal    as   a    Feed    for   Dairy 

Cows   and   Other  Livestock. 

339.  The    Relative    Cost    of    Making    Logs 

from   Small   and  Large  Timber. 

340.  Control     of     the     Pocket     Gopher     in 

California. 

343.  Cheese    Pests    and    Their    Control. 

344.  Cold    Storage   as   an   Aid   to   the   Mar- 

keting of  Plums. 

346.  Almond    Pollination. 

347.  The  Control  of  Red  Spiders  in  Decid- 

uous Orchards, 

348.  Pruning  Young  Olive  Trees. 

849.  A    Study    of    Sidedraft    and    Tractor 

Hitches. 

850,  Agriculture      in      Cut-over      Redwood 

Lands. 

353.  Bovine   Infectious   Abortion, 

354.  Results  of  Rice  Experiments  in   1922, 

357,  A    Self-mixing    Dusting    Machine    for 

Applying      Dry      Insecticides      and 
Fungicides. 

358.  Black    Measles,     Water    Berries,     and 

Related  Vine  Troubles. 

361.  Preliminary    Yield   Tables   for    Second 

Growth   Redwood. 

362.  Dust   and  the  Tractor  Engine. 

363.  The  Pruning  of  Citrus  Trees  in  Cali- 

fornia. 

364.  Fungicidal    Dusts    for   the    Control    of 

Bunt. 

365.  Avocado  Culture  in   California. 

366.  Turkish  Tobacco  Culture,   Curing  and 

Marketing. 

367.  Methods  of  Harvesting  and  Irrigation 

in   Relation  of  Mouldy  Walnuts. 

368.  Bacterial  Decomposition  of  Olives  dur- 

ing Pickling. 
869.   Comparison     of     Woods     for     Butter 
Boxes. 

370.  Browning  of  Yellow  Newtown  Apples. 

371.  The    Relative    Cost   of    Yarding    Small 

and   Large  Timber. 

373.  Pear   Pollination. 

374.  A  Survey  of  Orchard  Practices  in  the 

Citrus    Industry  of    Southern    Cali- 
fornia. 

375.  Results   of   Rice   Experiments   at   Cor- 

tena,    1923. 

376.  Sun-Drying  and  Dehydration  of  Wal- 

nuts, 

377.  The   Cold   Storage  of   Pears. 
379.  Walnut   Culture   in   California. 


BULLETINS 

No. 


380. 

382. 

385. 
386. 

387. 
388. 

389. 
390. 

391. 

392. 
393. 
394. 

395. 
896. 

397. 

398. 
399. 


400. 
401. 

402. 
404. 
405. 
406. 
407. 


408. 
409. 


410. 


411. 
412. 


414. 


415. 
416. 


417. 
418. 


419. 
420. 


421. 
422. 


423. 
424. 


425. 
426. 


427. 
428. 


Growth  of  Eucalyptus  in  California 
Plantations. 

Pumping  for  Drainage  in  the  San 
Joaquin   Valley,    California. 

Pollination    of   the    Sweet   Cherry. 

Pruning  Bearing  Deciduous  Fruit 
Trees, 

Fig  Smut. 

The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Sun- 
drying  Fruit. 

Berseem  or   Egyptian   Clover. 

Harvesting  and  Packing  Grapes  in 
California. 

Machines  for  Coating  Seed  Wheat  with 
Copper   Carbonate   Dust. 

Fruit    Juice    Concentrates. 

Crop  Sequences  at  Davis. 

Cereal  Hay  Production  in  California. 
Feeding  Trials  with  Cereal  Hay. 

Bark   Diseases   of   Citrus  Trees. 

The  Mat  Bean  (Phaseolus  aconitifo- 
lius). 

Manufacture  of  Roquefort  Type  Cheese 
from   Goat's  Milk. 

Orchard  Heating  in  California. 

The  Blackberry  Mite,  the  Cause  of 
Redberry  Disease  of  the  Himalaya 
Blackberry,    and    its    Control. 

The  Utilization  of  Surplus  Plums, 

Cost  of  Work  Horses  on  California 
Farms, 

The  Codling  Moth  in  Walnuts, 

The  Dehydration  of  Prunes, 

Citrus  Culture  in  Central  California, 

Stationary  Spray  Plants  in  California. 

Yield,  Stand  and  Volume  Tables  for 
White  Fir  in  the  California  Pine 
Region, 

Alternaria  Rot  of  Lemons. 

The  Digestibility  of  Certain  Fruit  By- 
products as  Determined  for  Rumi- 
nants. 

Factors  Affecting  the  Quality  of  Fresh 
Asparagus  after  it  is  Harvested. 

Paradichlorobenzene  as  a  Soil  Fumi- 
gant. 

A  Study  of  the  Relative  Values  of  Cer- 
tain Root  Crops  and  Salmon  Oil  as 
Sources  of  Vitamin  A  for  Poultry. 

Planting  and  Thinning  Distances  for 
Deciduous  Fruit  Trees. 

The  Tractor  on  California  Farms. 

Culture  of  the  Oriental  Persimmon 
in    California, 

Poultry  Feeding:  Principles  and 
Practice. 

A  Study  of  Various  Rations  for 
Finishing  Range  Calves  as  Baby 
Beeves. 

Economic  Aspects  of  the  Cantaloupe 
Industry. 

Rice  and  Rice  By-products  as  Feeds 
for   Fattening   Swine. 

Beef   Cattle   Feeding   Trials,    1921-24. 

Cost  of  Producing  Almonds  in  Cali- 
fornia ;  a  Progress  Report, 

Apricots  (Series  on  California  Crops 
and  Prices), 

The  Relation  of  Rate  of  Maturity  to 
Egg  Production, 

Apple   Growing  in   California. 

Apple  Pollination  Studies  in  Cali- 
fornia. 

The  Value  of  Orange  Pulp  for  Milk 
Production. 

The  Relation  of  Maturity  of  Cali- 
fornia Plums  to  Shipping  and 
Dessert   Quality. 

Economic  Status  of  the  Grape  Industry. 


CIRCULARS 

No.  No. 

87.  Alfalfa.  259. 

117.  The    Selection    and    Cost   of    a    Small  261. 

Pumping  Plant.  262. 

127.  House   Fumigation.  263. 

129.  The  Control  of  Citrus  Insects.  264. 
136.  Melilotus    indica    as    a    Green-Manure 

Crop  for  California.  265. 

144.  Oidium    or    Powdery    Mildew    of    the  266. 

Vine. 

157.  Control  of  the  Pear  Scab.  267. 
164.   Small  Fruit  Culture  in  California. 

166.  The  County  Farm  Bureau.  269. 

170.  Fertilizing     California     Soils     for    the  270. 

1918  Crop.  272. 
173.  The    Construction    of   the   Wood-Hoop 

Silo.  273. 

178.  The   Packing  of  Apples  in   California.  276. 

179.  Factors    of    Importance   in    Producing  277. 

Milk  of  Low  Bacterial  Count. 

202.  County   Organizations   for   Rural   Fire  278. 

Control. 

203.  Peat  as   a  Manure   Substitute.  279. 
209.  The  Function  of  the  Farm  Bureau. 

212.   Salvaging    Rain-Damaged    Prunes.  281. 
215.   Feeding  Dairy  Cows  in  California. 
217.  Methods   for  Marketing  Vegetables   in 

California.  282. 

230.  Testing  Milk,   Cream,   and   Skim  Milk 

for  Butterfat.  283. 

231.  The    Home   Vineyard.  284. 

232.  Harvesting    and    Handling    California  285. 

Cherries   for    Eastern    Shipment.  286. 

234.  Winter  Injury  to  Young  Walnut  Trees  287. 

during  1921-22.  288. 

238.  The  Apricot  in  California.  289. 

239.  Harvesting     and     Handling     Apricots  290. 

and  Plums  for  Eastern  Shipment.  291. 

240.  Harvesting    and    Handling    Pears    for 

Eastern   Shipment.  292. 

241.  Harvesting  and  Handling  Peaches  for  293. 

Eastern   Shipment.  294. 

243.  Marmalade  Juice  and  Jelly  Juice  from  295. 

Citrus  Fruits. 

244.  Central  Wire  Bracing  for  Fruit  Trees.  296. 

245.  Vine  Pruning  Systems. 

248.  Some   Common    Errors   in   Vine  Prun-  298. 

mg  and  Their  Remedies. 

249.  Replacing    Missing    Vines.  300. 

250.  Measurement   of   Irrigation   Water   on  301, 

the  Farm.  302. 

252.  Supports  for  Vines.  303. 

253.  Vineyard  Plans, 

254.  The  Use  of  Artificial  Light  to  Increase  304. 

Winter   Egg   Production.  305, 

255.  Leguminous  Plants  as  Organic  Fertil-  30,6, 

izer   in    California   Agriculture. 

256.  The   Control   of  Wild   Morning   Glory.  307. 

257.  The  Small-Seeded  Horse  Bean.  308. 

258.  Thinning  Deciduous   Fruits  309. 


Pear  By-products. 

Sewing  Gfrain  Sacks. 

Cabbage  Growing  in  California. 

Tomato  Production  in  California. 

Preliminary      Essentials      to      Bovine 

Tuberculosis  Control. 
Plant  Disease  and  Pest  Control. 
Analyzing     the     Citrus     Orchard     by 

Means  of  Simple  Tree  Records. 
The  Tendency  of  Tractors  to  Rise  in 

Front;   Causes  and  Remedies.   " 
An  Orchard  Brush  Burner. 
A  Farm  Septic  Tank. 
California  Farm  Tenancy  and  Methods 

of  Leasing, 
Saving  the  Gophered  Citrus  Tree, 
Home  Canning, 
Head,   Cane,    and   Cordon   Pruning  of 

Vines. 
Olive  Pickling  in  Mediterranean  Coun- 
tries, 
The  Preparation  and  Refining  of  Olive 

Oil   in    Southern   Europe. 
The  Results  of  a  Survey  to  Determine 

the  Cost  of  Producing  Beef  in  Cali- 
fornia. 
Prevention  of  Insect  Attack  on  Stored 

Grain. 
Fertilizing  Citrus  Trees  in  California. 
The  Almond   in   California. 
Sweet  Potato  Production  in  California. 
Milk  Houses  for  California  Dairies. 
Potato   Production   in   California. 
Phylloxera  Resistant  Vineyards. 
Oak  Fungus  in  Orchard  Trees. 
The  Tangier  Pea. 
Blackhead   and   Other  Causes  of  Loss 

of  Turkeys  in   California. 
Alkali  Soils. 

The    Basis   of   Grape    Standardization. 
Propagation   of   Deciduous   Fruits. 
The   Growing   and   Handling  of   Head 

Lettuce  in   California. 
Control     of     the     California     Ground 

Squirrel. 
The    Possibilities    and    Limitations    of 

Cooperative  Marketing. 
Coccidiosis  of  Chickens. 
Buckeye  Poisoning  of  the  Honey  Bee. 
The   Sugar  Beet  in   California. 
A  Promising  Remedy  for  Black  Measles 

of  the  Vine. 
Drainage  on  the  Farm. 
Liming  the  Soil. 
A  General  Purpose  Soil  Auger  and  its 

Use  on  the  Farm. 
American   Foulbrood  and  its   Control. 
Cantaloupe  Production  in  California. 
Fruit  Tree  and  Orchard  Judging. 


The  publications  listed  above  may  be  had  by  addressing 

College  of  Agriculture, 

University  of  California, 

Berkeley,  California, 


15m-3,'2{ 


